Draft ECMA-262 / May 12, 2021

)

states that the nonterminal WhileStatement represents the token while, followed by a left parenthesis token, followed by an Expression, followed by a right parenthesis token, followed by a Statement. The occurrences of Expression and Statement are themselves nonterminals. As another example, the syntactic definition:

states that an ArgumentList may represent either a single AssignmentExpression or an ArgumentList, followed by a comma, followed by an AssignmentExpression. This definition of ArgumentList is recursive, that is, it is defined in terms of itself. The result is that an ArgumentList may contain any positive number of arguments, separated by commas, where each argument expression is an AssignmentExpression. Such recursive definitions of nonterminals are common.

The subscripted suffix “_opt”, which may appear after a terminal or nonterminal, indicates an optional symbol. The alternative containing the optional symbol actually specifies two right-hand sides, one that omits the optional element and one that includes it. This means that:

opt

is a convenient abbreviation for:

and that:

for

(

opt

;

opt

)

is a convenient abbreviation for:

ForStatement

for

(

;

opt

)

for

(

;

opt

)

which in turn is an abbreviation for:

ForStatement

for

(

;

)

for

(

;

)

for

(

;

)

for

(

;

)

so, in this example, the nonterminal ForStatement actually has four alternative right-hand sides.

A production may be parameterized by a subscripted annotation of the form “_[parameters]”, which may appear as a suffix to the nonterminal symbol defined by the production. “_parameters” may be either a single name or a comma separated list of names. A parameterized production is shorthand for a set of productions defining all combinations of the parameter names, preceded by an underscore, appended to the parameterized nonterminal symbol. This means that:

[Return]

is a convenient abbreviation for:

and that:

[Return, In]

is an abbreviation for:

StatementList_Return_In

Multiple parameters produce a combinatory number of productions, not all of which are necessarily referenced in a complete grammar.

References to nonterminals on the right-hand side of a production can also be parameterized. For example:

[+In]

is equivalent to saying:

ExpressionStatement_In

and:

[~In]

is equivalent to:

A nonterminal reference may have both a parameter list and an “_opt” suffix. For example:

[+In]

opt

is an abbreviation for:

Initializer_In

Prefixing a parameter name with “_?” on a right-hand side nonterminal reference makes that parameter value dependent upon the occurrence of the parameter name on the reference to the current production's left-hand side symbol. For example:

[In]

[?In]

is an abbreviation for:

VariableDeclaration_In

Initializer_In

If a right-hand side alternative is prefixed with “[+parameter]” that alternative is only available if the named parameter was used in referencing the production's nonterminal symbol. If a right-hand side alternative is prefixed with “[~parameter]” that alternative is only available if the named parameter was not used in referencing the production's nonterminal symbol. This means that:

[Return]

[+Return]

is an abbreviation for:

and that:

[Return]

[~Return]

is an abbreviation for:

When the words “one of” follow the colon(s) in a grammar definition, they signify that each of the terminal symbols on the following line or lines is an alternative definition. For example, the lexical grammar for ECMAScript contains the production:

NonZeroDigit

one of

which is merely a convenient abbreviation for:

NonZeroDigit

If the phrase “[empty]” appears as the right-hand side of a production, it indicates that the production's right-hand side contains no terminals or nonterminals.

If the phrase “[lookahead = seq]” appears in the right-hand side of a production, it indicates that the production may only be used if the token sequence seq is a prefix of the immediately following input token sequence. Similarly, “[lookahead ∈ set]”, where set is a finite nonempty set of token sequences, indicates that the production may only be used if some element of set is a prefix of the immediately following token sequence. For convenience, the set can also be written as a nonterminal, in which case it represents the set of all token sequences to which that nonterminal could expand. It is considered an editorial error if the nonterminal could expand to infinitely many distinct token sequences.

These conditions may be negated. “[lookahead ≠ seq]” indicates that the containing production may only be used if seq is not a prefix of the immediately following input token sequence, and “[lookahead ∉ set]” indicates that the production may only be used if no element of set is a prefix of the immediately following token sequence.

As an example, given the definitions:

one of

the definition:

[lookahead ∉ { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 }]

DecimalDigit

[lookahead ∉ DecimalDigit]

matches either the letter n followed by one or more decimal digits the first of which is even, or a decimal digit not followed by another decimal digit.

Note that when these phrases are used in the syntactic grammar, it may not be possible to unambiguously identify the immediately following token sequence because determining later tokens requires knowing which lexical goal symbol to use at later positions. As such, when these are used in the syntactic grammar, it is considered an editorial error for a token sequence seq to appear in a lookahead restriction (including as part of a set of sequences) if the choices of lexical goal symbols to use could change whether or not seq would be a prefix of the resulting token sequence.

If the phrase “[no LineTerminator here]” appears in the right-hand side of a production of the syntactic grammar, it indicates that the production is a restricted production: it may not be used if a LineTerminator occurs in the input stream at the indicated position. For example, the production:

ThrowStatement

throw

[no LineTerminator here]

;

indicates that the production may not be used if a LineTerminator occurs in the script between the throw token and the Expression.

Unless the presence of a LineTerminator is forbidden by a restricted production, any number of occurrences of LineTerminator may appear between any two consecutive tokens in the stream of input elements without affecting the syntactic acceptability of the script.

When an alternative in a production of the lexical grammar or the numeric string grammar appears to be a multi-code point token, it represents the sequence of code points that would make up such a token.

The right-hand side of a production may specify that certain expansions are not permitted by using the phrase “but not” and then indicating the expansions to be excluded. For example, the production:

Identifier

IdentifierName

but not ReservedWord

means that the nonterminal Identifier may be replaced by any sequence of code points that could replace IdentifierName provided that the same sequence of code points could not replace ReservedWord.

Finally, a few nonterminal symbols are described by a descriptive phrase in sans-serif type in cases where it would be impractical to list all the alternatives:

SourceCharacter

any Unicode code point

5.2 Algorithm Conventions

The specification often uses a numbered list to specify steps in an algorithm. These algorithms are used to precisely specify the required semantics of ECMAScript language constructs. The algorithms are not intended to imply the use of any specific implementation technique. In practice, there may be more efficient algorithms available to implement a given feature.

Algorithms may be explicitly parameterized with an ordered, comma-separated sequence of alias names which may be used within the algorithm steps to reference the argument passed in that position. Optional parameters are denoted with surrounding brackets ([ , name ]) and are no different from required parameters within algorithm steps. A rest parameter may appear at the end of a parameter list, denoted with leading ellipsis (, ...name). The rest parameter captures all of the arguments provided following the required and optional parameters into a List. If there are no such additional arguments, that List is empty.

Algorithm steps may be subdivided into sequential substeps. Substeps are indented and may themselves be further divided into indented substeps. Outline numbering conventions are used to identify substeps with the first level of substeps labelled with lower case alphabetic characters and the second level of substeps labelled with lower case roman numerals. If more than three levels are required these rules repeat with the fourth level using numeric labels. For example:

Top-level step
1. Substep.
2. Substep.
  1. Subsubstep.
    1. Subsubsubstep
      1. Subsubsubsubstep
        Subsubsubsubsubstep

A step or substep may be written as an “if” predicate that conditions its substeps. In this case, the substeps are only applied if the predicate is true. If a step or substep begins with the word “else”, it is a predicate that is the negation of the preceding “if” predicate step at the same level.

A step may specify the iterative application of its substeps.

A step that begins with “Assert:” asserts an invariant condition of its algorithm. Such assertions are used to make explicit algorithmic invariants that would otherwise be implicit. Such assertions add no additional semantic requirements and hence need not be checked by an implementation. They are used simply to clarify algorithms.

Algorithm steps may declare named aliases for any value using the form “Let x be someValue”. These aliases are reference-like in that both x and someValue refer to the same underlying data and modifications to either are visible to both. Algorithm steps that want to avoid this reference-like behaviour should explicitly make a copy of the right-hand side: “Let x be a copy of someValue” creates a shallow copy of someValue.

Once declared, an alias may be referenced in any subsequent steps and must not be referenced from steps prior to the alias's declaration. Aliases may be modified using the form “Set x to someOtherValue”.

5.2.1 Abstract Operations

In order to facilitate their use in multiple parts of this specification, some algorithms, called abstract operations, are named and written in parameterized functional form so that they may be referenced by name from within other algorithms. Abstract operations are typically referenced using a functional application style such as OperationName(arg1, arg2). Some abstract operations are treated as polymorphically dispatched methods of class-like specification abstractions. Such method-like abstract operations are typically referenced using a method application style such as someValue.OperationName(arg1, arg2).

5.2.2 Syntax-Directed Operations

A syntax-directed operation is a named operation whose definition consists of algorithms, each of which is associated with one or more productions from one of the ECMAScript grammars. A production that has multiple alternative definitions will typically have a distinct algorithm for each alternative. When an algorithm is associated with a grammar production, it may reference the terminal and nonterminal symbols of the production alternative as if they were parameters of the algorithm. When used in this manner, nonterminal symbols refer to the actual alternative definition that is matched when parsing the source text. The source text matched by a grammar production is the portion of the source text that starts at the beginning of the first terminal that participated in the match and ends at the end of the last terminal that participated in the match.

When an algorithm is associated with a production alternative, the alternative is typically shown without any “[ ]” grammar annotations. Such annotations should only affect the syntactic recognition of the alternative and have no effect on the associated semantics for the alternative.

Syntax-directed operations are invoked with a parse node and, optionally, other parameters by using the conventions on steps 1, 3, and 4 in the following algorithm:

Let status be SyntaxDirectedOperation of SomeNonTerminal.
Let someParseNode be the parse of some source text.
Perform SyntaxDirectedOperation of someParseNode.
Perform SyntaxDirectedOperation of someParseNode passing "value" as the argument.

Unless explicitly specified otherwise, all chain productions have an implicit definition for every operation that might be applied to that production's left-hand side nonterminal. The implicit definition simply reapplies the same operation with the same parameters, if any, to the chain production's sole right-hand side nonterminal and then returns the result. For example, assume that some algorithm has a step of the form: “Return the result of evaluating Block” and that there is a production:

Block

{

}

but the Evaluation operation does not associate an algorithm with that production. In that case, the Evaluation operation implicitly includes an association of the form:

Runtime Semantics: Evaluation

Block

{

StrUnsignedDecimalLiteral

}

Return the result of evaluating StatementList.

5.2.3 Runtime Semantics

Algorithms which specify semantics that must be called at runtime are called runtime semantics. Runtime semantics are defined by abstract operations or syntax-directed operations. Such algorithms always return a completion record.

5.2.3.1 Implicit Completion Values

The algorithms of this specification often implicitly return Completion Records whose [[Type]] is normal. Unless it is otherwise obvious from the context, an algorithm statement that returns a value that is not a Completion Record, such as:

Return "Infinity".

means the same thing as:

Return NormalCompletion("Infinity").

However, if the value expression of a “return” statement is a Completion Record construction literal, the resulting Completion Record is returned. If the value expression is a call to an abstract operation, the “return” statement simply returns the Completion Record produced by the abstract operation.

The abstract operation Completion(completionRecord) is used to emphasize that a previously computed Completion Record is being returned. The Completion abstract operation takes a single argument, completionRecord, and performs the following steps:

Assert: completionRecord is a Completion Record.
Return completionRecord as the Completion Record of this abstract operation.

A “return” statement without a value in an algorithm step means the same thing as:

Return NormalCompletion(undefined).

Any reference to a Completion Record value that is in a context that does not explicitly require a complete Completion Record value is equivalent to an explicit reference to the [[Value]] field of the Completion Record value unless the Completion Record is an abrupt completion.

5.2.3.2 Throw an Exception

Algorithms steps that say to throw an exception, such as

Throw a TypeError exception.

mean the same things as:

Return ThrowCompletion(a newly created TypeError object).

5.2.3.3 ReturnIfAbrupt

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

ReturnIfAbrupt(argument).

mean the same thing as:

If argument is an abrupt completion, return argument.
Else if argument is a Completion Record, set argument to argument.[[Value]].

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

ReturnIfAbrupt(AbstractOperation()).

mean the same thing as:

Let hygienicTemp be AbstractOperation().
If hygienicTemp is an abrupt completion, return hygienicTemp.
Else if hygienicTemp is a Completion Record, set hygienicTemp to hygienicTemp.[[Value]].

Where hygienicTemp is ephemeral and visible only in the steps pertaining to ReturnIfAbrupt.

Algorithms steps that say or are otherwise equivalent to:

Let result be AbstractOperation(ReturnIfAbrupt(argument)).

mean the same thing as:

If argument is an abrupt completion, return argument.
If argument is a Completion Record, set argument to argument.[[Value]].
Let result be AbstractOperation(argument).

5.2.3.4 ReturnIfAbrupt Shorthands

Invocations of abstract operations and syntax-directed operations that are prefixed by ? indicate that ReturnIfAbrupt should be applied to the resulting Completion Record. For example, the step:

? OperationName().

is equivalent to the following step:

ReturnIfAbrupt(OperationName()).

Similarly, for method application style, the step:

? someValue.OperationName().

is equivalent to:

ReturnIfAbrupt(someValue.OperationName()).

Similarly, prefix ! is used to indicate that the following invocation of an abstract or syntax-directed operation will never return an abrupt completion and that the resulting Completion Record's [[Value]] field should be used in place of the return value of the operation. For example, the step:

Let val be ! OperationName().

is equivalent to the following steps:

Let val be OperationName().
Assert: val is never an abrupt completion.
If val is a Completion Record, set val to val.[[Value]].

Syntax-directed operations for runtime semantics make use of this shorthand by placing ! or ? before the invocation of the operation:

Perform ! SyntaxDirectedOperation of NonTerminal.

5.2.4 Static Semantics

Context-free grammars are not sufficiently powerful to express all the rules that define whether a stream of input elements form a valid ECMAScript Script or Module that may be evaluated. In some situations additional rules are needed that may be expressed using either ECMAScript algorithm conventions or prose requirements. Such rules are always associated with a production of a grammar and are called the static semantics of the production.

Static Semantic Rules have names and typically are defined using an algorithm. Named Static Semantic Rules are associated with grammar productions and a production that has multiple alternative definitions will typically have for each alternative a distinct algorithm for each applicable named static semantic rule.

A special kind of static semantic rule is an Early Error Rule. Early error rules define early error conditions (see clause 17) that are associated with specific grammar productions. Evaluation of most early error rules are not explicitly invoked within the algorithms of this specification. A conforming implementation must, prior to the first evaluation of a Script or Module, validate all of the early error rules of the productions used to parse that Script or Module. If any of the early error rules are violated the Script or Module is invalid and cannot be evaluated.

5.2.5 Mathematical Operations

This specification makes reference to these kinds of numeric values:

Mathematical values: Arbitrary real numbers, used as the default numeric type.
Extended mathematical values: Mathematical values together with +∞ and -∞.
Numbers: IEEE 754-2019 double-precision floating point values.
BigInts: ECMAScript values representing arbitrary integers in a one-to-one correspondence.

In the language of this specification, numerical values are distinguished among different numeric kinds using subscript suffixes. The subscript _𝔽 refers to Numbers, and the subscript _ℤ refers to BigInts. Numeric values without a subscript suffix refer to mathematical values.

Numeric operators such as +, ×, =, and ≥ refer to those operations as determined by the type of the operands. When applied to mathematical values, the operators refer to the usual mathematical operations. When applied to Numbers, the operators refer to the relevant operations within IEEE 754-2019. When applied to BigInts, the operators refer to the usual mathematical operations applied to the mathematical value of the BigInt.

In general, when this specification refers to a numerical value, such as in the phrase, "the length of y" or "the integer represented by the four hexadecimal digits ...", without explicitly specifying a numeric kind, the phrase refers to a mathematical value. Phrases which refer to a Number or a BigInt value are explicitly annotated as such; for example, "the Number value for the number of code points in …" or "the BigInt value for …".

Numeric operators applied to mixed-type operands (such as a Number and a mathematical value) are not defined and should be considered an editorial error in this specification.

This specification denotes most numeric values in base 10; it also uses numeric values of the form 0x followed by digits 0-9 or A-F as base-16 values.

When the term integer is used in this specification, it refers to a mathematical value which is in the set of integers, unless otherwise stated. When the term integral Number is used in this specification, it refers to a Number value whose mathematical value is in the set of integers.

Conversions between mathematical values and Numbers or BigInts are always explicit in this document. A conversion from a mathematical value or extended mathematical value x to a Number is denoted as "the Number value for x" or 𝔽(x), and is defined in 6.1.6.1. A conversion from an integer x to a BigInt is denoted as "the BigInt value for x" or ℤ(x). A conversion from a Number or BigInt x to a mathematical value is denoted as "the mathematical value of x", or ℝ(x). The mathematical value of +0_𝔽 and -0_𝔽 is the mathematical value 0. The mathematical value of non-finite values is not defined. The extended mathematical value of x is the mathematical value of x for finite values, and is +∞ and -∞ for +∞_𝔽 and -∞_𝔽 respectively; it is not defined for NaN.

The mathematical function abs(x) produces the absolute value of x, which is -x if x < 0 and otherwise is x itself.

The mathematical function min(x1, x2, … , xN) produces the mathematically smallest of x1 through xN. The mathematical function max(x1, x2, ..., xN) produces the mathematically largest of x1 through xN. The domain and range of these mathematical functions are the extended mathematical values.

The notation “x modulo y” (y must be finite and non-zero) computes a value k of the same sign as y (or zero) such that abs(k) < abs(y) and x - k = q × y for some integer q.

The phrase "the result of clamping x between lower and upper" (where x is an extended mathematical value and lower and upper are mathematical values such that lower ≤ upper) produces lower if x < lower, produces upper if x > upper, and otherwise produces x.

The mathematical function floor(x) produces the largest integer (closest to +∞) that is not larger than x.

Mathematical functions min, max, abs, and floor are not defined for Numbers and BigInts, and any usage of those methods that have non-mathematical value arguments would be an editorial error in this specification.

Note

floor(x) = x - (x modulo 1).

5.2.6 Value Notation

In this specification, ECMAScript language values are displayed in bold. Examples include null, true, or "hello". These are distinguished from longer ECMAScript code sequences such as Function.prototype.apply or let n = 42;.

Values which are internal to the specification and not directly observable from ECMAScript code are indicated with a sans-serif typeface. For instance, a Completion Record's [[Type]] field takes on values like normal, return, or throw.

6 ECMAScript Data Types and Values

Algorithms within this specification manipulate values each of which has an associated type. The possible value types are exactly those defined in this clause. Types are further subclassified into ECMAScript language types and specification types.

Within this specification, the notation “Type(x)” is used as shorthand for “the type of x” where “type” refers to the ECMAScript language and specification types defined in this clause. When the term “empty” is used as if it was naming a value, it is equivalent to saying “no value of any type”.

6.1 ECMAScript Language Types

An ECMAScript language type corresponds to values that are directly manipulated by an ECMAScript programmer using the ECMAScript language. The ECMAScript language types are Undefined, Null, Boolean, String, Symbol, Number, BigInt, and Object. An ECMAScript language value is a value that is characterized by an ECMAScript language type.

6.1.1 The Undefined Type

The Undefined type has exactly one value, called undefined. Any variable that has not been assigned a value has the value undefined.

6.1.2 The Null Type

The Null type has exactly one value, called null.

6.1.3 The Boolean Type

The Boolean type represents a logical entity having two values, called true and false.

6.1.4 The String Type

The String type is the set of all ordered sequences of zero or more 16-bit unsigned integer values (“elements”) up to a maximum length of 2⁵³ - 1 elements. The String type is generally used to represent textual data in a running ECMAScript program, in which case each element in the String is treated as a UTF-16 code unit value. Each element is regarded as occupying a position within the sequence. These positions are indexed with non-negative integers. The first element (if any) is at index 0, the next element (if any) at index 1, and so on. The length of a String is the number of elements (i.e., 16-bit values) within it. The empty String has length zero and therefore contains no elements.

ECMAScript operations that do not interpret String contents apply no further semantics. Operations that do interpret String values treat each element as a single UTF-16 code unit. However, ECMAScript does not restrict the value of or relationships between these code units, so operations that further interpret String contents as sequences of Unicode code points encoded in UTF-16 must account for ill-formed subsequences. Such operations apply special treatment to every code unit with a numeric value in the inclusive range 0xD800 to 0xDBFF (defined by the Unicode Standard as a leading surrogate, or more formally as a high-surrogate code unit) and every code unit with a numeric value in the inclusive range 0xDC00 to 0xDFFF (defined as a trailing surrogate, or more formally as a low-surrogate code unit) using the following rules:

A code unit that is not a leading surrogate and not a trailing surrogate is interpreted as a code point with the same value.
A sequence of two code units, where the first code unit c1 is a leading surrogate and the second code unit c2 a trailing surrogate, is a surrogate pair and is interpreted as a code point with the value (c1 - 0xD800) × 0x400 + (c2 - 0xDC00) + 0x10000. (See 11.1.3)
A code unit that is a leading surrogate or trailing surrogate, but is not part of a surrogate pair, is interpreted as a code point with the same value.

The function String.prototype.normalize (see 22.1.3.13) can be used to explicitly normalize a String value. String.prototype.localeCompare (see 22.1.3.10) internally normalizes String values, but no other operations implicitly normalize the strings upon which they operate. Only operations that are explicitly specified to be language or locale sensitive produce language-sensitive results.

Note

The rationale behind this design was to keep the implementation of Strings as simple and high-performing as possible. If ECMAScript source text is in Normalized Form C, string literals are guaranteed to also be normalized, as long as they do not contain any Unicode escape sequences.

In this specification, the phrase "the string-concatenation of A, B, ..." (where each argument is a String value, a code unit, or a sequence of code units) denotes the String value whose sequence of code units is the concatenation of the code units (in order) of each of the arguments (in order).

The phrase "the substring of S from inclusiveStart to exclusiveEnd" (where S is a String value or a sequence of code units and inclusiveStart and exclusiveEnd are integers) denotes the String value consisting of the consecutive code units of S beginning at index inclusiveStart and ending immediately before index exclusiveEnd (which is the empty String when inclusiveStart = exclusiveEnd). If the "to" suffix is omitted, the length of S is used as the value of exclusiveEnd.

6.1.4.1 StringIndexOf ( `string`, `searchValue`, `fromIndex` )

The abstract operation StringIndexOf takes arguments string (a String), searchValue (a String), and fromIndex (a non-negative integer). It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: Type(string) is String.
Assert: Type(searchValue) is String.
Assert: fromIndex is a non-negative integer.
Let len be the length of string.
If searchValue is the empty String and fromIndex ≤ len, return fromIndex.
Let searchLen be the length of searchValue.
For each integer i starting with fromIndex such that i ≤ len - searchLen, in ascending order, do
1. Let candidate be the substring of string from i to i + searchLen.
2. If candidate is the same sequence of code units as searchValue, return i.
Return -1.

Note 1

If searchValue is the empty String and fromIndex is less than or equal to the length of string, this algorithm returns fromIndex. The empty String is effectively found at every position within a string, including after the last code unit.

Note 2

This algorithm always returns -1 if fromIndex > the length of string.

6.1.5 The Symbol Type

The Symbol type is the set of all non-String values that may be used as the key of an Object property (6.1.7).

Each possible Symbol value is unique and immutable.

Each Symbol value immutably holds an associated value called [[Description]] that is either undefined or a String value.

6.1.5.1 Well-Known Symbols

Well-known symbols are built-in Symbol values that are explicitly referenced by algorithms of this specification. They are typically used as the keys of properties whose values serve as extension points of a specification algorithm. Unless otherwise specified, well-known symbols values are shared by all realms (9.3).

Within this specification a well-known symbol is referred to by using a notation of the form @@name, where “name” is one of the values listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Well-known Symbols

Specification Name	[[Description]]	Value and Purpose
@@asyncIterator	"Symbol.asyncIterator"	A method that returns the default AsyncIterator for an object. Called by the semantics of the `for`-`await`-`of` statement.
@@hasInstance	"Symbol.hasInstance"	A method that determines if a constructor object recognizes an object as one of the constructor's instances. Called by the semantics of the `instanceof` operator.
@@isConcatSpreadable	"Symbol.isConcatSpreadable"	A Boolean valued property that if true indicates that an object should be flattened to its array elements by `Array.prototype.concat`.
@@iterator	"Symbol.iterator"	A method that returns the default Iterator for an object. Called by the semantics of the for-of statement.
@@match	"Symbol.match"	A regular expression method that matches the regular expression against a string. Called by the `String.prototype.match` method.
@@matchAll	"Symbol.matchAll"	A regular expression method that returns an iterator, that yields matches of the regular expression against a string. Called by the `String.prototype.matchAll` method.
@@replace	"Symbol.replace"	A regular expression method that replaces matched substrings of a string. Called by the `String.prototype.replace` method.
@@search	"Symbol.search"	A regular expression method that returns the index within a string that matches the regular expression. Called by the `String.prototype.search` method.
@@species	"Symbol.species"	A function valued property that is the constructor function that is used to create derived objects.
@@split	"Symbol.split"	A regular expression method that splits a string at the indices that match the regular expression. Called by the `String.prototype.split` method.
@@toPrimitive	"Symbol.toPrimitive"	A method that converts an object to a corresponding primitive value. Called by the ToPrimitive abstract operation.
@@toStringTag	"Symbol.toStringTag"	A String valued property that is used in the creation of the default string description of an object. Accessed by the built-in method `Object.prototype.toString`.
@@unscopables	"Symbol.unscopables"	An object valued property whose own and inherited property names are property names that are excluded from the `with` environment bindings of the associated object.

6.1.6 Numeric Types

ECMAScript has two built-in numeric types: Number and BigInt. In this specification, every numeric type T contains a multiplicative identity value denoted T::unit. The specification types also have the following abstract operations, likewise denoted T::op for a given operation with specification name op. All argument types are T. The "Result" column shows the return type, along with an indication if it is possible for some invocations of the operation to return an abrupt completion.

Table 2: Numeric Type Operations

Invocation Synopsis	Example source	Invoked by the Evaluation semantics of ...	Result
`T`::unaryMinus(x)	`-x`	Unary `-` Operator	`T`
`T`::bitwiseNOT(x)	`~x`	Bitwise NOT Operator ( `~` )	`T`
`T`::exponentiate(x, y)	`x ** y`	Exponentiation Operator and Math.pow ( `base`, `exponent` )	`T`, may throw RangeError
`T`::multiply(x, y)	`x * y`	Multiplicative Operators	`T`
`T`::divide(x, y)	`x / y`	Multiplicative Operators	`T`, may throw RangeError
`T`::remainder(x, y)	`x % y`	Multiplicative Operators	`T`, may throw RangeError
`T`::add(x, y)	`x ++` `++ x` `x + y`	Postfix Increment Operator, Prefix Increment Operator, and The Addition Operator ( `+` )	`T`
`T`::subtract(x, y)	`x --` `-- x` `x - y`	Postfix Decrement Operator, Prefix Decrement Operator, and The Subtraction Operator ( `-` )	`T`
`T`::leftShift(x, y)	`x << y`	The Left Shift Operator ( `<<` )	`T`
`T`::signedRightShift(x, y)	`x >> y`	The Signed Right Shift Operator ( `>>` )	`T`
`T`::unsignedRightShift(x, y)	`x >>> y`	The Unsigned Right Shift Operator ( `>>>` )	`T`, may throw TypeError
`T`::lessThan(x, y)	`x < y` `x > y` `x <= y` `x >= y`	Relational Operators, via Abstract Relational Comparison	Boolean or undefined (for unordered inputs)
`T`::equal(x, y)	`x == y` `x != y` `x === y` `x !== y`	Equality Operators, via Strict Equality Comparison	Boolean
`T`::sameValue(x, y)		Object internal methods, via SameValue ( `x`, `y` ), to test exact value equality	Boolean
`T`::sameValueZero(x, y)		Array, Map, and Set methods, via SameValueZero ( `x`, `y` ), to test value equality ignoring differences among members of the zero cohort (i.e., -0_𝔽 and +0_𝔽)	Boolean
`T`::bitwiseAND(x, y)	`x & y`	Binary Bitwise Operators	`T`
`T`::bitwiseXOR(x, y)	`x ^ y`	Binary Bitwise Operators	`T`
`T`::bitwiseOR(x, y)	`x \| y`	Binary Bitwise Operators	`T`
`T`::toString(x)	`String(x)`	Many expressions and built-in functions, via ToString ( `argument` )	String

The T::unit value and T::op operations are not a part of the ECMAScript language; they are defined here solely to aid the specification of the semantics of the ECMAScript language. Other abstract operations are defined throughout this specification.

Because the numeric types are in general not convertible without loss of precision or truncation, the ECMAScript language provides no implicit conversion among these types. Programmers must explicitly call Number and BigInt functions to convert among types when calling a function which requires another type.

Note

The first and subsequent editions of ECMAScript have provided, for certain operators, implicit numeric conversions that could lose precision or truncate. These legacy implicit conversions are maintained for backward compatibility, but not provided for BigInt in order to minimize opportunity for programmer error, and to leave open the option of generalized value types in a future edition.

6.1.6.1 The Number Type

The Number type has exactly 18,437,736,874,454,810,627 (that is, 2⁶⁴ - 2⁵³ + 3) values, representing the double-precision 64-bit format IEEE 754-2019 values as specified in the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic, except that the 9,007,199,254,740,990 (that is, 2⁵³ - 2) distinct “Not-a-Number” values of the IEEE Standard are represented in ECMAScript as a single special NaN value. (Note that the NaN value is produced by the program expression NaN.) In some implementations, external code might be able to detect a difference between various Not-a-Number values, but such behaviour is implementation-defined; to ECMAScript code, all NaN values are indistinguishable from each other.

Note

The bit pattern that might be observed in an ArrayBuffer (see 25.1) or a SharedArrayBuffer (see 25.2) after a Number value has been stored into it is not necessarily the same as the internal representation of that Number value used by the ECMAScript implementation.

There are two other special values, called positive Infinity and negative Infinity. For brevity, these values are also referred to for expository purposes by the symbols +∞_𝔽 and -∞_𝔽, respectively. (Note that these two infinite Number values are produced by the program expressions +Infinity (or simply Infinity) and -Infinity.)

The other 18,437,736,874,454,810,624 (that is, 2⁶⁴ - 2⁵³) values are called the finite numbers. Half of these are positive numbers and half are negative numbers; for every finite positive Number value there is a corresponding negative value having the same magnitude.

Note that there is both a positive zero and a negative zero. For brevity, these values are also referred to for expository purposes by the symbols +0_𝔽 and -0_𝔽, respectively. (Note that these two different zero Number values are produced by the program expressions +0 (or simply 0) and -0.)

The 18,437,736,874,454,810,622 (that is, 2⁶⁴ - 2⁵³ - 2) finite non-zero values are of two kinds:

18,428,729,675,200,069,632 (that is, 2⁶⁴ - 2⁵⁴) of them are normalized, having the form

s \times m \times 2 e

where s is 1 or -1, m is an integer such that 2⁵² ≤ m < 2⁵³, and e is an integer such that -1074 ≤ e ≤ 971.

The remaining 9,007,199,254,740,990 (that is, 2⁵³ - 2) values are denormalized, having the form

s \times m \times 2 e

where s is 1 or -1, m is an integer such that 0 < m < 2⁵², and e is -1074.

Note that all the positive and negative integers whose magnitude is no greater than 2⁵³ are representable in the Number type. The integer 0 has two representations in the Number type: +0_𝔽 and -0_𝔽.

A finite number has an odd significand if it is non-zero and the integer m used to express it (in one of the two forms shown above) is odd. Otherwise, it has an even significand.

In this specification, the phrase “the Number value for x” where x represents an exact real mathematical quantity (which might even be an irrational number such as π) means a Number value chosen in the following manner. Consider the set of all finite values of the Number type, with -0_𝔽 removed and with two additional values added to it that are not representable in the Number type, namely 2¹⁰²⁴ (which is +1 × 2⁵³ × 2⁹⁷¹) and -2¹⁰²⁴ (which is -1 × 2⁵³ × 2⁹⁷¹). Choose the member of this set that is closest in value to x. If two values of the set are equally close, then the one with an even significand is chosen; for this purpose, the two extra values 2¹⁰²⁴ and -2¹⁰²⁴ are considered to have even significands. Finally, if 2¹⁰²⁴ was chosen, replace it with +∞_𝔽; if -2¹⁰²⁴ was chosen, replace it with -∞_𝔽; if +0_𝔽 was chosen, replace it with -0_𝔽 if and only if x < 0; any other chosen value is used unchanged. The result is the Number value for x. (This procedure corresponds exactly to the behaviour of the IEEE 754-2019 roundTiesToEven mode.)

The Number value for +∞ is +∞_𝔽, and the Number value for -∞ is -∞_𝔽.

Some ECMAScript operators deal only with integers in specific ranges such as -2³¹ through 2³¹ - 1, inclusive, or in the range 0 through 2¹⁶ - 1, inclusive. These operators accept any value of the Number type but first convert each such value to an integer value in the expected range. See the descriptions of the numeric conversion operations in 7.1.

The Number::unit value is 1_𝔽.

6.1.6.1.1 Number::unaryMinus ( `x` )

The abstract operation Number::unaryMinus takes argument x (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

If x is NaN, return NaN.
Return the result of negating x; that is, compute a Number with the same magnitude but opposite sign.

6.1.6.1.2 Number::bitwiseNOT ( `x` )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseNOT takes argument x (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

Let oldValue be ! ToInt32(x).
Return the result of applying bitwise complement to oldValue. The mathematical value of the result is exactly representable as a 32-bit two's complement bit string.

6.1.6.1.3 Number::exponentiate ( `base`, `exponent` )

The abstract operation Number::exponentiate takes arguments base (a Number) and exponent (a Number). It returns an implementation-approximated value representing the result of raising base to the exponent power. It performs the following steps when called:

If exponent is NaN, return NaN.
If exponent is +0_𝔽 or exponent is -0_𝔽, return 1_𝔽.
If base is NaN, return NaN.
If base is +∞_𝔽, then
1. If exponent > +0_𝔽, return +∞_𝔽. Otherwise, return +0_𝔽.
If base is -∞_𝔽, then
1. If exponent > +0_𝔽, then
  1. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -∞_𝔽. Otherwise, return +∞_𝔽.
2. Else,
  1. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -0_𝔽. Otherwise, return +0_𝔽.
If base is +0_𝔽, then
1. If exponent > +0_𝔽, return +0_𝔽. Otherwise, return +∞_𝔽.
If base is -0_𝔽, then
1. If exponent > +0_𝔽, then
  1. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -0_𝔽. Otherwise, return +0_𝔽.
2. Else,
  1. If exponent is an odd integral Number, return -∞_𝔽. Otherwise, return +∞_𝔽.
Assert: base is finite and is neither +0_𝔽 nor -0_𝔽.
If exponent is +∞_𝔽, then
1. If abs(ℝ(base)) > 1, return +∞_𝔽.
2. If abs(ℝ(base)) is 1, return NaN.
3. If abs(ℝ(base)) < 1, return +0_𝔽.
If exponent is -∞_𝔽, then
1. If abs(ℝ(base)) > 1, return +0_𝔽.
2. If abs(ℝ(base)) is 1, return NaN.
3. If abs(ℝ(base)) < 1, return +∞_𝔽.
Assert: exponent is finite and is neither +0_𝔽 nor -0_𝔽.
If base < +0_𝔽 and exponent is not an integral Number, return NaN.
Return an implementation-approximated value representing the result of raising ℝ(base) to the ℝ(exponent) power.

Note

The result of base ** exponent when base is 1_𝔽 or -1_𝔽 and exponent is +∞_𝔽 or -∞_𝔽, or when base is 1_𝔽 and exponent is NaN, differs from IEEE 754-2019. The first edition of ECMAScript specified a result of NaN for this operation, whereas later versions of IEEE 754-2019 specified 1_𝔽. The historical ECMAScript behaviour is preserved for compatibility reasons.

6.1.6.1.4 Number::multiply ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::multiply takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs multiplication according to the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic, producing the product of x and y. It performs the following steps when called:

If x is NaN or y is NaN, return NaN.
If x is +∞_𝔽 or x is -∞_𝔽, then
1. If y is +0_𝔽 or y is -0_𝔽, return NaN.
2. If y > +0_𝔽, return x.
3. Return -x.
If y is +∞_𝔽 or y is -∞_𝔽, then
1. If x is +0_𝔽 or x is -0_𝔽, return NaN.
2. If x > +0_𝔽, return y.
3. Return -y.
Return 𝔽(ℝ(x) × ℝ(y)).

Note

Finite-precision multiplication is commutative, but not always associative.

6.1.6.1.5 Number::divide ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::divide takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs division according to the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic, producing the quotient of x and y where x is the dividend and y is the divisor. It performs the following steps when called:

If x is NaN or y is NaN, return NaN.
If x is +∞_𝔽 or x is -∞_𝔽, then
1. If y is +∞_𝔽 or y is -∞_𝔽, return NaN.
2. If y is +0_𝔽 or y > +0_𝔽, return x.
3. Return -x.
If y is +∞_𝔽, then
1. If x is +0_𝔽 or x > +0_𝔽, return +0_𝔽. Otherwise, return -0_𝔽.
If y is -∞_𝔽, then
1. If x is +0_𝔽 or x > +0_𝔽, return -0_𝔽. Otherwise, return +0_𝔽.
If x is +0_𝔽 or x is -0_𝔽, then
1. If y is +0_𝔽 or y is -0_𝔽, return NaN.
2. If y > +0_𝔽, return x.
3. Return -x.
If y is +0_𝔽, then
1. If x > +0_𝔽, return +∞_𝔽. Otherwise, return -∞_𝔽.
If y is -0_𝔽, then
1. If x > +0_𝔽, return -∞_𝔽. Otherwise, return +∞_𝔽.
Return 𝔽(ℝ(x) / ℝ(y)).

6.1.6.1.6 Number::remainder ( `n`, `d` )

The abstract operation Number::remainder takes arguments n (a Number) and d (a Number). It yields the remainder from an implied division of its operands where n is the dividend and d is the divisor. It performs the following steps when called:

If n is NaN or d is NaN, return NaN.
If n is +∞_𝔽 or n is -∞_𝔽, return NaN.
If d is +∞_𝔽 or d is -∞_𝔽, return n.
If d is +0_𝔽 or d is -0_𝔽, return NaN.
If n is +0_𝔽 or n is -0_𝔽, return n.
Assert: n and d are finite and non-zero.
Let r be ℝ(n) - (ℝ(d) × q) where q is an integer that is negative if and only if n and d have opposite sign, and whose magnitude is as large as possible without exceeding the magnitude of ℝ(n) / ℝ(d).
Return 𝔽(r).

Note 1

In C and C++, the remainder operator accepts only integral operands; in ECMAScript, it also accepts floating-point operands.

Note 2

The result of a floating-point remainder operation as computed by the % operator is not the same as the “remainder” operation defined by IEEE 754-2019. The IEEE 754-2019 “remainder” operation computes the remainder from a rounding division, not a truncating division, and so its behaviour is not analogous to that of the usual integer remainder operator. Instead the ECMAScript language defines % on floating-point operations to behave in a manner analogous to that of the Java integer remainder operator; this may be compared with the C library function fmod.

6.1.6.1.7 Number::add ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::add takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs addition according to the rules of IEEE 754-2019 binary double-precision arithmetic, producing the sum of its arguments. It performs the following steps when called:

If x is NaN or y is NaN, return NaN.
If x is +∞_𝔽 and y is -∞_𝔽, return NaN.
If x is -∞_𝔽 and y is +∞_𝔽, return NaN.
If x is +∞_𝔽 or x is -∞_𝔽, return x.
If y is +∞_𝔽 or y is -∞_𝔽, return y.
Assert: x and y are both finite.
If x is -0_𝔽 and y is -0_𝔽, return -0_𝔽.
Return 𝔽(ℝ(x) + ℝ(y)).

Note

Finite-precision addition is commutative, but not always associative.

6.1.6.1.8 Number::subtract ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::subtract takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs subtraction, producing the difference of its operands; x is the minuend and y is the subtrahend. It performs the following steps when called:

Return Number::add(x, Number::unaryMinus(y)).

Note

It is always the case that x - y produces the same result as x + (-y).

6.1.6.1.9 Number::leftShift ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::leftShift takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).
Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
Let shiftCount be ℝ(rnum) modulo 32.
Return the result of left shifting lnum by shiftCount bits. The mathematical value of the result is exactly representable as a 32-bit two's complement bit string.

6.1.6.1.10 Number::signedRightShift ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::signedRightShift takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).
Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
Let shiftCount be ℝ(rnum) modulo 32.
Return the result of performing a sign-extending right shift of lnum by shiftCount bits. The most significant bit is propagated. The mathematical value of the result is exactly representable as a 32-bit two's complement bit string.

6.1.6.1.11 Number::unsignedRightShift ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::unsignedRightShift takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

Let lnum be ! ToUint32(x).
Let rnum be ! ToUint32(y).
Let shiftCount be ℝ(rnum) modulo 32.
Return the result of performing a zero-filling right shift of lnum by shiftCount bits. Vacated bits are filled with zero. The mathematical value of the result is exactly representable as a 32-bit unsigned bit string.

6.1.6.1.12 Number::lessThan ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::lessThan takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

If x is NaN, return undefined.
If y is NaN, return undefined.
If x and y are the same Number value, return false.
If x is +0_𝔽 and y is -0_𝔽, return false.
If x is -0_𝔽 and y is +0_𝔽, return false.
If x is +∞_𝔽, return false.
If y is +∞_𝔽, return true.
If y is -∞_𝔽, return false.
If x is -∞_𝔽, return true.
Assert: x and y are finite and non-zero.
If ℝ(x) < ℝ(y), return true. Otherwise, return false.

6.1.6.1.13 Number::equal ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::equal takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

If x is NaN, return false.
If y is NaN, return false.
If x is the same Number value as y, return true.
If x is +0_𝔽 and y is -0_𝔽, return true.
If x is -0_𝔽 and y is +0_𝔽, return true.
Return false.

6.1.6.1.14 Number::sameValue ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::sameValue takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

If x is NaN and y is NaN, return true.
If x is +0_𝔽 and y is -0_𝔽, return false.
If x is -0_𝔽 and y is +0_𝔽, return false.
If x is the same Number value as y, return true.
Return false.

6.1.6.1.15 Number::sameValueZero ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::sameValueZero takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

If x is NaN and y is NaN, return true.
If x is +0_𝔽 and y is -0_𝔽, return true.
If x is -0_𝔽 and y is +0_𝔽, return true.
If x is the same Number value as y, return true.
Return false.

6.1.6.1.16 NumberBitwiseOp ( `op`, `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation NumberBitwiseOp takes arguments op (a sequence of Unicode code points), x, and y. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: op is &, ^, or |.
Let lnum be ! ToInt32(x).
Let rnum be ! ToInt32(y).
Let lbits be the 32-bit two's complement bit string representing ℝ(lnum).
Let rbits be the 32-bit two's complement bit string representing ℝ(rnum).
If op is &, let result be the result of applying the bitwise AND operation to lbits and rbits.
Else if op is ^, let result be the result of applying the bitwise exclusive OR (XOR) operation to lbits and rbits.
Else, op is |. Let result be the result of applying the bitwise inclusive OR operation to lbits and rbits.
Return the Number value for the integer represented by the 32-bit two's complement bit string result.

6.1.6.1.17 Number::bitwiseAND ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseAND takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

Return NumberBitwiseOp(&, x, y).

6.1.6.1.18 Number::bitwiseXOR ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseXOR takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

Return NumberBitwiseOp(^, x, y).

6.1.6.1.19 Number::bitwiseOR ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation Number::bitwiseOR takes arguments x (a Number) and y (a Number). It performs the following steps when called:

Return NumberBitwiseOp(|, x, y).

6.1.6.1.20 Number::toString ( `x` )

The abstract operation Number::toString takes argument x (a Number). It converts x to String format. It performs the following steps when called:

If x is NaN, return the String "NaN".
If x is +0_𝔽 or -0_𝔽, return the String "0".
If x < +0_𝔽, return the string-concatenation of "-" and ! Number::toString(-x).
If x is +∞_𝔽, return the String "Infinity".
Otherwise, let n, k, and s be integers such that k ≥ 1, 10^{k - 1} ≤ s < 10^k, s × 10^{n - k} is ℝ(x), and k is as small as possible. Note that k is the number of digits in the decimal representation of s, that s is not divisible by 10, and that the least significant digit of s is not necessarily uniquely determined by these criteria.
If k ≤ n ≤ 21, return the string-concatenation of:
- the code units of the k digits of the decimal representation of s (in order, with no leading zeroes)
- n - k occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
If 0 < n ≤ 21, return the string-concatenation of:
- the code units of the most significant n digits of the decimal representation of s
- the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
- the code units of the remaining k - n digits of the decimal representation of s
If -6 < n ≤ 0, return the string-concatenation of:
- the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
- the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
- -n occurrences of the code unit 0x0030 (DIGIT ZERO)
- the code units of the k digits of the decimal representation of s
Otherwise, if k = 1, return the string-concatenation of:
- the code unit of the single digit of s
- the code unit 0x0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E)
- the code unit 0x002B (PLUS SIGN) or the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS) according to whether n - 1 is positive or negative
- the code units of the decimal representation of the integer abs(n - 1) (with no leading zeroes)
Return the string-concatenation of:
- the code units of the most significant digit of the decimal representation of s
- the code unit 0x002E (FULL STOP)
- the code units of the remaining k - 1 digits of the decimal representation of s
- the code unit 0x0065 (LATIN SMALL LETTER E)
- the code unit 0x002B (PLUS SIGN) or the code unit 0x002D (HYPHEN-MINUS) according to whether n - 1 is positive or negative
- the code units of the decimal representation of the integer abs(n - 1) (with no leading zeroes)

Note 1

The following observations may be useful as guidelines for implementations, but are not part of the normative requirements of this Standard:

If x is any Number value other than -0_𝔽, then ToNumber(ToString(x)) is exactly the same Number value as x.
The least significant digit of s is not always uniquely determined by the requirements listed in step 5.

Note 2

For implementations that provide more accurate conversions than required by the rules above, it is recommended that the following alternative version of step 5 be used as a guideline:

Otherwise, let n, k, and s be integers such that k ≥ 1, 10^{k - 1} ≤ s < 10^k, s × 10^{n - k} is ℝ(x), and k is as small as possible. If there are multiple possibilities for s, choose the value of s for which s × 10^{n - k} is closest in value to ℝ(x). If there are two such possible values of s, choose the one that is even. Note that k is the number of digits in the decimal representation of s and that s is not divisible by 10.

Note 3

Implementers of ECMAScript may find useful the paper and code written by David M. Gay for binary-to-decimal conversion of floating-point numbers:

Gay, David M. Correctly Rounded Binary-Decimal and Decimal-Binary Conversions. Numerical Analysis, Manuscript 90-10. AT&T Bell Laboratories (Murray Hill, New Jersey). 30 November 1990. Available as
http://ampl.com/REFS/abstracts.html#rounding. Associated code available as
http://netlib.sandia.gov/fp/dtoa.c and as
http://netlib.sandia.gov/fp/g_fmt.c and may also be found at the various netlib mirror sites.

6.1.6.2 The BigInt Type

The BigInt type represents an integer value. The value may be any size and is not limited to a particular bit-width. Generally, where not otherwise noted, operations are designed to return exact mathematically-based answers. For binary operations, BigInts act as two's complement binary strings, with negative numbers treated as having bits set infinitely to the left.

The BigInt::unit value is 1_ℤ.

6.1.6.2.1 BigInt::unaryMinus ( `x` )

The abstract operation BigInt::unaryMinus takes argument x (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

If x is 0_ℤ, return 0_ℤ.
Return the BigInt value that represents the negation of ℝ(x).

6.1.6.2.2 BigInt::bitwiseNOT ( `x` )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseNOT takes argument x (a BigInt). It returns the one's complement of x; that is, -x - 1_ℤ.

6.1.6.2.3 BigInt::exponentiate ( `base`, `exponent` )

The abstract operation BigInt::exponentiate takes arguments base (a BigInt) and exponent (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

If exponent < 0_ℤ, throw a RangeError exception.
If base is 0_ℤ and exponent is 0_ℤ, return 1_ℤ.
Return the BigInt value that represents ℝ(base) raised to the power ℝ(exponent).

6.1.6.2.4 BigInt::multiply ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::multiply takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns the BigInt value that represents the result of multiplying x and y.

Note

Even if the result has a much larger bit width than the input, the exact mathematical answer is given.

6.1.6.2.5 BigInt::divide ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::divide takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

If y is 0_ℤ, throw a RangeError exception.
Let quotient be ℝ(x) / ℝ(y).
Return the BigInt value that represents quotient rounded towards 0 to the next integer value.

6.1.6.2.6 BigInt::remainder ( `n`, `d` )

The abstract operation BigInt::remainder takes arguments n (a BigInt) and d (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

If d is 0_ℤ, throw a RangeError exception.
If n is 0_ℤ, return 0_ℤ.
Let r be the BigInt defined by the mathematical relation r = n - (d × q) where q is a BigInt that is negative only if n/d is negative and positive only if n/d is positive, and whose magnitude is as large as possible without exceeding the magnitude of the true mathematical quotient of n and d.
Return r.

Note

The sign of the result equals the sign of the dividend.

6.1.6.2.7 BigInt::add ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::add takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns the BigInt value that represents the sum of x and y.

6.1.6.2.8 BigInt::subtract ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::subtract takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns the BigInt value that represents the difference x minus y.

6.1.6.2.9 BigInt::leftShift ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::leftShift takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

If y < 0_ℤ, then
1. Return the BigInt value that represents ℝ(x) / 2^-y, rounding down to the nearest integer, including for negative numbers.
Return the BigInt value that represents ℝ(x) × 2^y.

Note

Semantics here should be equivalent to a bitwise shift, treating the BigInt as an infinite length string of binary two's complement digits.

6.1.6.2.10 BigInt::signedRightShift ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::signedRightShift takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

Return BigInt::leftShift(x, -y).

6.1.6.2.11 BigInt::unsignedRightShift ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::unsignedRightShift takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

Throw a TypeError exception.

6.1.6.2.12 BigInt::lessThan ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::lessThan takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns true if ℝ(x) < ℝ(y) and false otherwise.

6.1.6.2.13 BigInt::equal ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::equal takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It returns true if ℝ(x) = ℝ(y) and false otherwise.

6.1.6.2.14 BigInt::sameValue ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::sameValue takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

Return BigInt::equal(x, y).

6.1.6.2.15 BigInt::sameValueZero ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::sameValueZero takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

Return BigInt::equal(x, y).

6.1.6.2.16 BinaryAnd ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BinaryAnd takes arguments x and y. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: x is 0 or 1.
Assert: y is 0 or 1.
If x is 1 and y is 1, return 1.
Else, return 0.

6.1.6.2.17 BinaryOr ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BinaryOr takes arguments x and y. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: x is 0 or 1.
Assert: y is 0 or 1.
If x is 1 or y is 1, return 1.
Else, return 0.

6.1.6.2.18 BinaryXor ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BinaryXor takes arguments x and y. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: x is 0 or 1.
Assert: y is 0 or 1.
If x is 1 and y is 0, return 1.
Else if x is 0 and y is 1, return 1.
Else, return 0.

6.1.6.2.19 BigIntBitwiseOp ( `op`, `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigIntBitwiseOp takes arguments op (a sequence of Unicode code points), x (a BigInt), and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: op is &, ^, or |.
Set x to ℝ(x).
Set y to ℝ(y).
Let result be 0.
Let shift be 0.
Repeat, until (x = 0 or x = -1) and (y = 0 or y = -1),
1. Let xDigit be x modulo 2.
2. Let yDigit be y modulo 2.
3. If op is &, set result to result + 2^shift × BinaryAnd(xDigit, yDigit).
4. Else if op is |, set result to result + 2^shift × BinaryOr(xDigit, yDigit).
5. Else,
  1. Assert: op is ^.
  2. Set result to result + 2^shift × BinaryXor(xDigit, yDigit).
6. Set shift to shift + 1.
7. Set x to (x - xDigit) / 2.
8. Set y to (y - yDigit) / 2.
If op is &, let tmp be BinaryAnd(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
Else if op is |, let tmp be BinaryOr(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
Else,
1. Assert: op is ^.
2. Let tmp be BinaryXor(x modulo 2, y modulo 2).
If tmp ≠ 0, then
1. Set result to result - 2^shift.
2. NOTE: This extends the sign.
Return the BigInt value for result.

6.1.6.2.20 BigInt::bitwiseAND ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseAND takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

Return BigIntBitwiseOp(&, x, y).

6.1.6.2.21 BigInt::bitwiseXOR ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseXOR takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

Return BigIntBitwiseOp(^, x, y).

6.1.6.2.22 BigInt::bitwiseOR ( `x`, `y` )

The abstract operation BigInt::bitwiseOR takes arguments x (a BigInt) and y (a BigInt). It performs the following steps when called:

Return BigIntBitwiseOp(|, x, y).

6.1.6.2.23 BigInt::toString ( `x` )

The abstract operation BigInt::toString takes argument x (a BigInt). It converts x to String format. It performs the following steps when called:

If x < 0_ℤ, return the string-concatenation of the String "-" and ! BigInt::toString(-x).
Return the String value consisting of the code units of the digits of the decimal representation of x.

6.1.7 The Object Type

An Object is logically a collection of properties. Each property is either a data property, or an accessor property:

A data property associates a key value with an ECMAScript language value and a set of Boolean attributes.
An accessor property associates a key value with one or two accessor functions, and a set of Boolean attributes. The accessor functions are used to store or retrieve an ECMAScript language value that is associated with the property.

Properties are identified using key values. A property key value is either an ECMAScript String value or a Symbol value. All String and Symbol values, including the empty String, are valid as property keys. A property name is a property key that is a String value.

An integer index is a String-valued property key that is a canonical numeric String (see 7.1.21) and whose numeric value is either +0_𝔽 or a positive integral Number ≤ 𝔽(2⁵³ - 1). An array index is an integer index whose numeric value i is in the range +0_𝔽 ≤ i < 𝔽(2³² - 1).

Property keys are used to access properties and their values. There are two kinds of access for properties: get and set, corresponding to value retrieval and assignment, respectively. The properties accessible via get and set access includes both own properties that are a direct part of an object and inherited properties which are provided by another associated object via a property inheritance relationship. Inherited properties may be either own or inherited properties of the associated object. Each own property of an object must each have a key value that is distinct from the key values of the other own properties of that object.

All objects are logically collections of properties, but there are multiple forms of objects that differ in their semantics for accessing and manipulating their properties. Please see 6.1.7.2 for definitions of the multiple forms of objects.

6.1.7.1 Property Attributes

Attributes are used in this specification to define and explain the state of Object properties. A data property associates a key value with the attributes listed in Table 3.

Table 3: Attributes of a Data Property

Attribute Name	Value Domain	Description
[[Value]]	Any ECMAScript language type	The value retrieved by a get access of the property.
[[Writable]]	Boolean	If false, attempts by ECMAScript code to change the property's [[Value]] attribute using [[Set]] will not succeed.
[[Enumerable]]	Boolean	If true, the property will be enumerated by a for-in enumeration (see 14.7.5). Otherwise, the property is said to be non-enumerable.
[[Configurable]]	Boolean	If false, attempts to delete the property, change the property to be an accessor property, or change its attributes (other than [[Value]], or changing [[Writable]] to false) will fail.

An accessor property associates a key value with the attributes listed in Table 4.

Table 4: Attributes of an Accessor Property

Attribute Name	Value Domain	Description
[[Get]]	Object \| Undefined	If the value is an Object it must be a function object. The function's [[Call]] internal method (Table 7) is called with an empty arguments list to retrieve the property value each time a get access of the property is performed.
[[Set]]	Object \| Undefined	If the value is an Object it must be a function object. The function's [[Call]] internal method (Table 7) is called with an arguments list containing the assigned value as its sole argument each time a set access of the property is performed. The effect of a property's [[Set]] internal method may, but is not required to, have an effect on the value returned by subsequent calls to the property's [[Get]] internal method.
[[Enumerable]]	Boolean	If true, the property is to be enumerated by a for-in enumeration (see 14.7.5). Otherwise, the property is said to be non-enumerable.
[[Configurable]]	Boolean	If false, attempts to delete the property, change the property to be a data property, or change its attributes will fail.

If the initial values of a property's attributes are not explicitly specified by this specification, the default value defined in Table 5 is used.

Table 5: Default Attribute Values

Attribute Name	Default Value
[[Value]]	undefined
[[Get]]	undefined
[[Set]]	undefined
[[Writable]]	false
[[Enumerable]]	false
[[Configurable]]	false

6.1.7.2 Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots

The actual semantics of objects, in ECMAScript, are specified via algorithms called internal methods. Each object in an ECMAScript engine is associated with a set of internal methods that defines its runtime behaviour. These internal methods are not part of the ECMAScript language. They are defined by this specification purely for expository purposes. However, each object within an implementation of ECMAScript must behave as specified by the internal methods associated with it. The exact manner in which this is accomplished is determined by the implementation.

Internal method names are polymorphic. This means that different object values may perform different algorithms when a common internal method name is invoked upon them. That actual object upon which an internal method is invoked is the “target” of the invocation. If, at runtime, the implementation of an algorithm attempts to use an internal method of an object that the object does not support, a TypeError exception is thrown.

Internal slots correspond to internal state that is associated with objects and used by various ECMAScript specification algorithms. Internal slots are not object properties and they are not inherited. Depending upon the specific internal slot specification, such state may consist of values of any ECMAScript language type or of specific ECMAScript specification type values. Unless explicitly specified otherwise, internal slots are allocated as part of the process of creating an object and may not be dynamically added to an object. Unless specified otherwise, the initial value of an internal slot is the value undefined. Various algorithms within this specification create objects that have internal slots. However, the ECMAScript language provides no direct way to associate internal slots with an object.

All objects have an internal slot named [[PrivateElements]], which is a List of PrivateElements. This List represents the values of the private fields, methods, and accessors for the object. Initially, it is an empty List.

Internal methods and internal slots are identified within this specification using names enclosed in double square brackets [[ ]].

Table 6 summarizes the essential internal methods used by this specification that are applicable to all objects created or manipulated by ECMAScript code. Every object must have algorithms for all of the essential internal methods. However, all objects do not necessarily use the same algorithms for those methods.

An ordinary object is an object that satisfies all of the following criteria:

For the internal methods listed in Table 6, the object uses those defined in 10.1.
If the object has a [[Call]] internal method, it uses the one defined in 10.2.1.
If the object has a [[Construct]] internal method, it uses the one defined in 10.2.2.

An exotic object is an object that is not an ordinary object.

This specification recognizes different kinds of exotic objects by those objects' internal methods. An object that is behaviourally equivalent to a particular kind of exotic object (such as an Array exotic object or a bound function exotic object), but does not have the same collection of internal methods specified for that kind, is not recognized as that kind of exotic object.

The “Signature” column of Table 6 and other similar tables describes the invocation pattern for each internal method. The invocation pattern always includes a parenthesized list of descriptive parameter names. If a parameter name is the same as an ECMAScript type name then the name describes the required type of the parameter value. If an internal method explicitly returns a value, its parameter list is followed by the symbol “→” and the type name of the returned value. The type names used in signatures refer to the types defined in clause 6 augmented by the following additional names. “any” means the value may be any ECMAScript language type.

In addition to its parameters, an internal method always has access to the object that is the target of the method invocation.

An internal method implicitly returns a Completion Record, either a normal completion that wraps a value of the return type shown in its invocation pattern, or a throw completion.

Table 6: Essential Internal Methods

Internal Method	Signature	Description
[[GetPrototypeOf]]	( ) → Object \| Null	Determine the object that provides inherited properties for this object. A null value indicates that there are no inherited properties.
[[SetPrototypeOf]]	(Object \| Null) → Boolean	Associate this object with another object that provides inherited properties. Passing null indicates that there are no inherited properties. Returns true indicating that the operation was completed successfully or false indicating that the operation was not successful.
[[IsExtensible]]	( ) → Boolean	Determine whether it is permitted to add additional properties to this object.
[[PreventExtensions]]	( ) → Boolean	Control whether new properties may be added to this object. Returns true if the operation was successful or false if the operation was unsuccessful.
[[GetOwnProperty]]	(`propertyKey`) → Undefined \| Property Descriptor	Return a Property Descriptor for the own property of this object whose key is `propertyKey`, or undefined if no such property exists.
[[DefineOwnProperty]]	(`propertyKey`, `PropertyDescriptor`) → Boolean	Create or alter the own property, whose key is `propertyKey`, to have the state described by `PropertyDescriptor`. Return true if that property was successfully created/updated or false if the property could not be created or updated.
[[HasProperty]]	(`propertyKey`) → Boolean	Return a Boolean value indicating whether this object already has either an own or inherited property whose key is `propertyKey`.
[[Get]]	(`propertyKey`, `Receiver`) → any	Return the value of the property whose key is `propertyKey` from this object. If any ECMAScript code must be executed to retrieve the property value, `Receiver` is used as the this value when evaluating the code.
[[Set]]	(`propertyKey`, `value`, `Receiver`) → Boolean	Set the value of the property whose key is `propertyKey` to `value`. If any ECMAScript code must be executed to set the property value, `Receiver` is used as the this value when evaluating the code. Returns true if the property value was set or false if it could not be set.
[[Delete]]	(`propertyKey`) → Boolean	Remove the own property whose key is `propertyKey` from this object. Return false if the property was not deleted and is still present. Return true if the property was deleted or is not present.
[[OwnPropertyKeys]]	( ) → List of propertyKey	Return a List whose elements are all of the own property keys for the object.

Table 7 summarizes additional essential internal methods that are supported by objects that may be called as functions. A function object is an object that supports the [[Call]] internal method. A constructor is an object that supports the [[Construct]] internal method. Every object that supports [[Construct]] must support [[Call]]; that is, every constructor must be a function object. Therefore, a constructor may also be referred to as a constructor function or constructor function object.

Table 7: Additional Essential Internal Methods of Function Objects

Internal Method	Signature	Description
[[Call]]	(any, a List of any) → any	Executes code associated with this object. Invoked via a function call expression. The arguments to the internal method are a this value and a List whose elements are the arguments passed to the function by a call expression. Objects that implement this internal method are callable.
[[Construct]]	(a List of any, Object) → Object	Creates an object. Invoked via the `new` operator or a `super` call. The first argument to the internal method is a List whose elements are the arguments of the constructor invocation or the `super` call. The second argument is the object to which the `new` operator was initially applied. Objects that implement this internal method are called constructors. A function object is not necessarily a constructor and such non-constructor function objects do not have a [[Construct]] internal method.

The semantics of the essential internal methods for ordinary objects and standard exotic objects are specified in clause 10. If any specified use of an internal method of an exotic object is not supported by an implementation, that usage must throw a TypeError exception when attempted.

6.1.7.3 Invariants of the Essential Internal Methods

The Internal Methods of Objects of an ECMAScript engine must conform to the list of invariants specified below. Ordinary ECMAScript Objects as well as all standard exotic objects in this specification maintain these invariants. ECMAScript Proxy objects maintain these invariants by means of runtime checks on the result of traps invoked on the [[ProxyHandler]] object.

Any implementation provided exotic objects must also maintain these invariants for those objects. Violation of these invariants may cause ECMAScript code to have unpredictable behaviour and create security issues. However, violation of these invariants must never compromise the memory safety of an implementation.

An implementation must not allow these invariants to be circumvented in any manner such as by providing alternative interfaces that implement the functionality of the essential internal methods without enforcing their invariants.

Definitions:

The target of an internal method is the object upon which the internal method is called.
A target is non-extensible if it has been observed to return false from its [[IsExtensible]] internal method, or true from its [[PreventExtensions]] internal method.
A non-existent property is a property that does not exist as an own property on a non-extensible target.
All references to SameValue are according to the definition of the SameValue algorithm.

Return value:

The value returned by any internal method must be a Completion Record with either:

[[Type]] = normal, [[Target]] = empty, and [[Value]] = a value of the "normal return type" shown below for that internal method, or
[[Type]] = throw, [[Target]] = empty, and [[Value]] = any ECMAScript language value.

Note 1

An internal method must not return a completion with [[Type]] = continue, break, or return.

[[GetPrototypeOf]] ( )

The normal return type is either Object or Null.
If target is non-extensible, and [[GetPrototypeOf]] returns a value V, then any future calls to [[GetPrototypeOf]] should return the SameValue as V.

Note 2

An object's prototype chain should have finite length (that is, starting from any object, recursively applying the [[GetPrototypeOf]] internal method to its result should eventually lead to the value null). However, this requirement is not enforceable as an object level invariant if the prototype chain includes any exotic objects that do not use the ordinary object definition of [[GetPrototypeOf]]. Such a circular prototype chain may result in infinite loops when accessing object properties.

[[SetPrototypeOf]] ( `V` )

The normal return type is Boolean.
If target is non-extensible, [[SetPrototypeOf]] must return false, unless V is the SameValue as the target's observed [[GetPrototypeOf]] value.

[[IsExtensible]] ( )

The normal return type is Boolean.
If [[IsExtensible]] returns false, all future calls to [[IsExtensible]] on the target must return false.

[[PreventExtensions]] ( )

The normal return type is Boolean.
If [[PreventExtensions]] returns true, all future calls to [[IsExtensible]] on the target must return false and the target is now considered non-extensible.

[[GetOwnProperty]] ( `P` )

The normal return type is either Property Descriptor or Undefined.
If the Type of the return value is Property Descriptor, the return value must be a fully populated Property Descriptor.
If P is described as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property, all future calls to [[GetOwnProperty]] ( P ) must return Property Descriptor whose [[Value]] is SameValue as P's [[Value]] attribute.
If P's attributes other than [[Writable]] may change over time or if the property might be deleted, then P's [[Configurable]] attribute must be true.
If the [[Writable]] attribute may change from false to true, then the [[Configurable]] attribute must be true.
If the target is non-extensible and P is non-existent, then all future calls to [[GetOwnProperty]] (P) on the target must describe P as non-existent (i.e. [[GetOwnProperty]] (P) must return undefined).

Note 3

As a consequence of the third invariant, if a property is described as a data property and it may return different values over time, then either or both of the [[Writable]] and [[Configurable]] attributes must be true even if no mechanism to change the value is exposed via the other essential internal methods.

[[DefineOwnProperty]] ( `P`, `Desc` )

The normal return type is Boolean.
[[DefineOwnProperty]] must return false if P has previously been observed as a non-configurable own property of the target, unless either:
1. P is a writable data property. A non-configurable writable data property can be changed into a non-configurable non-writable data property.
2. All attributes of Desc are the SameValue as P's attributes.
[[DefineOwnProperty]] (P, Desc) must return false if target is non-extensible and P is a non-existent own property. That is, a non-extensible target object cannot be extended with new properties.

[[HasProperty]] ( `P` )

The normal return type is Boolean.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own data or accessor property of the target, [[HasProperty]] must return true.

[[Get]] ( `P`, `Receiver` )

The normal return type is any ECMAScript language type.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property of the target with value V, then [[Get]] must return the SameValue as V.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own accessor property of the target whose [[Get]] attribute is undefined, the [[Get]] operation must return undefined.

[[Set]] ( `P`, `V`, `Receiver` )

The normal return type is Boolean.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable, non-writable own data property of the target, then [[Set]] must return false unless V is the SameValue as P's [[Value]] attribute.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own accessor property of the target whose [[Set]] attribute is undefined, the [[Set]] operation must return false.

[[Delete]] ( `P` )

The normal return type is Boolean.
If P was previously observed as a non-configurable own data or accessor property of the target, [[Delete]] must return false.

[[OwnPropertyKeys]] ( )

The normal return type is List.
The returned List must not contain any duplicate entries.
The Type of each element of the returned List is either String or Symbol.
The returned List must contain at least the keys of all non-configurable own properties that have previously been observed.
If the target is non-extensible, the returned List must contain only the keys of all own properties of the target that are observable using [[GetOwnProperty]].

[[Call]] ( )

The normal return type is any ECMAScript language type.

[[Construct]] ( )

The normal return type is Object.
The target must also have a [[Call]] internal method.

6.1.7.4 Well-Known Intrinsic Objects

Well-known intrinsics are built-in objects that are explicitly referenced by the algorithms of this specification and which usually have realm-specific identities. Unless otherwise specified each intrinsic object actually corresponds to a set of similar objects, one per realm.

Within this specification a reference such as %name% means the intrinsic object, associated with the current realm, corresponding to the name. A reference such as %name.a.b% means, as if the "b" property of the "a" property of the intrinsic object %name% was accessed prior to any ECMAScript code being evaluated. Determination of the current realm and its intrinsics is described in 9.4. The well-known intrinsics are listed in Table 8.

Table 8: Well-Known Intrinsic Objects

Intrinsic Name	Global Name	ECMAScript Language Association
%AggregateError%	`AggregateError`	The `AggregateError` constructor (20.5.7.1)
%Array%	`Array`	The Array constructor (23.1.1)
%ArrayBuffer%	`ArrayBuffer`	The ArrayBuffer constructor (25.1.3)
%ArrayIteratorPrototype%		The prototype of Array iterator objects (23.1.5)
%AsyncFromSyncIteratorPrototype%		The prototype of async-from-sync iterator objects (27.1.4)
%AsyncFunction%		The constructor of async function objects (27.7.1)
%AsyncGeneratorFunction%		The constructor of async iterator objects (27.4.1)
%AsyncIteratorPrototype%		An object that all standard built-in async iterator objects indirectly inherit from
%Atomics%	`Atomics`	The `Atomics` object (25.4)
%BigInt%	`BigInt`	The BigInt constructor (21.2.1)
%BigInt64Array%	`BigInt64Array`	The BigInt64Array constructor (23.2)
%BigUint64Array%	`BigUint64Array`	The BigUint64Array constructor (23.2)
%Boolean%	`Boolean`	The Boolean constructor (20.3.1)
%DataView%	`DataView`	The DataView constructor (25.3.2)
%Date%	`Date`	The Date constructor (21.4.2)
%decodeURI%	`decodeURI`	The `decodeURI` function (19.2.6.2)
%decodeURIComponent%	`decodeURIComponent`	The `decodeURIComponent` function (19.2.6.3)
%encodeURI%	`encodeURI`	The `encodeURI` function (19.2.6.4)
%encodeURIComponent%	`encodeURIComponent`	The `encodeURIComponent` function (19.2.6.5)
%Error%	`Error`	The Error constructor (20.5.1)
%eval%	`eval`	The `eval` function (19.2.1)
%EvalError%	`EvalError`	The EvalError constructor (20.5.5.1)
%FinalizationRegistry%	`FinalizationRegistry`	The FinalizationRegistry constructor (26.2.1)
%Float32Array%	`Float32Array`	The Float32Array constructor (23.2)
%Float64Array%	`Float64Array`	The Float64Array constructor (23.2)
%ForInIteratorPrototype%		The prototype of For-In iterator objects (14.7.5.10)
%Function%	`Function`	The Function constructor (20.2.1)
%GeneratorFunction%		The constructor of generator objects (27.3.1)
%Int8Array%	`Int8Array`	The Int8Array constructor (23.2)
%Int16Array%	`Int16Array`	The Int16Array constructor (23.2)
%Int32Array%	`Int32Array`	The Int32Array constructor (23.2)
%isFinite%	`isFinite`	The `isFinite` function (19.2.2)
%isNaN%	`isNaN`	The `isNaN` function (19.2.3)
%IteratorPrototype%		An object that all standard built-in iterator objects indirectly inherit from
%JSON%	`JSON`	The `JSON` object (25.5)
%Map%	`Map`	The Map constructor (24.1.1)
%MapIteratorPrototype%		The prototype of Map iterator objects (24.1.5)
%Math%	`Math`	The `Math` object (21.3)
%Number%	`Number`	The Number constructor (21.1.1)
%Object%	`Object`	The Object constructor (20.1.1)
%parseFloat%	`parseFloat`	The `parseFloat` function (19.2.4)
%parseInt%	`parseInt`	The `parseInt` function (19.2.5)
%Promise%	`Promise`	The Promise constructor (27.2.3)
%Proxy%	`Proxy`	The Proxy constructor (28.2.1)
%RangeError%	`RangeError`	The RangeError constructor (20.5.5.2)
%ReferenceError%	`ReferenceError`	The ReferenceError constructor (20.5.5.3)
%Reflect%	`Reflect`	The `Reflect` object (28.1)
%RegExp%	`RegExp`	The RegExp constructor (22.2.3)
%RegExpStringIteratorPrototype%		The prototype of RegExp String Iterator objects (22.2.7)
%Set%	`Set`	The Set constructor (24.2.1)
%SetIteratorPrototype%		The prototype of Set iterator objects (24.2.5)
%SharedArrayBuffer%	`SharedArrayBuffer`	The SharedArrayBuffer constructor (25.2.2)
%String%	`String`	The String constructor (22.1.1)
%StringIteratorPrototype%		The prototype of String iterator objects (22.1.5)
%Symbol%	`Symbol`	The Symbol constructor (20.4.1)
%SyntaxError%	`SyntaxError`	The SyntaxError constructor (20.5.5.4)
%ThrowTypeError%		A function object that unconditionally throws a new instance of %TypeError%
%TypedArray%		The super class of all typed Array constructors (23.2.1)
%TypeError%	`TypeError`	The TypeError constructor (20.5.5.5)
%Uint8Array%	`Uint8Array`	The Uint8Array constructor (23.2)
%Uint8ClampedArray%	`Uint8ClampedArray`	The Uint8ClampedArray constructor (23.2)
%Uint16Array%	`Uint16Array`	The Uint16Array constructor (23.2)
%Uint32Array%	`Uint32Array`	The Uint32Array constructor (23.2)
%URIError%	`URIError`	The URIError constructor (20.5.5.6)
%WeakMap%	`WeakMap`	The WeakMap constructor (24.3.1)
%WeakRef%	`WeakRef`	The WeakRef constructor (26.1.1)
%WeakSet%	`WeakSet`	The WeakSet constructor (24.4.1)

Note

Additional entries in Table 86.

6.2 ECMAScript Specification Types

A specification type corresponds to meta-values that are used within algorithms to describe the semantics of ECMAScript language constructs and ECMAScript language types. The specification types include Reference, List, Completion, Property Descriptor, Environment Record, Abstract Closure, and Data Block. Specification type values are specification artefacts that do not necessarily correspond to any specific entity within an ECMAScript implementation. Specification type values may be used to describe intermediate results of ECMAScript expression evaluation but such values cannot be stored as properties of objects or values of ECMAScript language variables.

6.2.1 The List and Record Specification Types

The List type is used to explain the evaluation of argument lists (see 13.3.8) in new expressions, in function calls, and in other algorithms where a simple ordered list of values is needed. Values of the List type are simply ordered sequences of list elements containing the individual values. These sequences may be of any length. The elements of a list may be randomly accessed using 0-origin indices. For notational convenience an array-like syntax can be used to access List elements. For example, arguments[2] is shorthand for saying the 3^rd element of the List arguments.

When an algorithm iterates over the elements of a List without specifying an order, the order used is the order of the elements in the List.

For notational convenience within this specification, a literal syntax can be used to express a new List value. For example, « 1, 2 » defines a List value that has two elements each of which is initialized to a specific value. A new empty List can be expressed as « ».

The Record type is used to describe data aggregations within the algorithms of this specification. A Record type value consists of one or more named fields. The value of each field is either an ECMAScript value or an abstract value represented by a name associated with the Record type. Field names are always enclosed in double brackets, for example [[Value]].

For notational convenience within this specification, an object literal-like syntax can be used to express a Record value. For example, { [[Field1]]: 42, [[Field2]]: false, [[Field3]]: empty } defines a Record value that has three fields, each of which is initialized to a specific value. Field name order is not significant. Any fields that are not explicitly listed are considered to be absent.

In specification text and algorithms, dot notation may be used to refer to a specific field of a Record value. For example, if R is the record shown in the previous paragraph then R.[[Field2]] is shorthand for “the field of R named [[Field2]]”.

Schema for commonly used Record field combinations may be named, and that name may be used as a prefix to a literal Record value to identify the specific kind of aggregations that is being described. For example: PropertyDescriptor { [[Value]]: 42, [[Writable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: true }.

6.2.2 The Set and Relation Specification Types

The Set type is used to explain a collection of unordered elements for use in the memory model. Values of the Set type are simple collections of elements, where no element appears more than once. Elements may be added to and removed from Sets. Sets may be unioned, intersected, or subtracted from each other.

The Relation type is used to explain constraints on Sets. Values of the Relation type are Sets of ordered pairs of values from its value domain. For example, a Relation on events is a set of ordered pairs of events. For a Relation R and two values a and b in the value domain of R, a R b is shorthand for saying the ordered pair (a, b) is a member of R. A Relation is least with respect to some conditions when it is the smallest Relation that satisfies those conditions.

A strict partial order is a Relation value R that satisfies the following.

For all a, b, and c in R's domain:
- It is not the case that a R a, and
- If a R b and b R c, then a R c.

Note 1

The two properties above are called irreflexivity and transitivity, respectively.

A strict total order is a Relation value R that satisfies the following.

For all a, b, and c in R's domain:
- a is identical to b or a R b or b R a, and
- It is not the case that a R a, and
- If a R b and b R c, then a R c.

Note 2

The three properties above are called totality, irreflexivity, and transitivity, respectively.

6.2.3 The Completion Record Specification Type

The Completion type is a Record used to explain the runtime propagation of values and control flow such as the behaviour of statements (break, continue, return and throw) that perform nonlocal transfers of control.

Values of the Completion type are Record values whose fields are defined by Table 9. Such values are referred to as Completion Records.

Table 9: Completion Record Fields

Field Name	Value	Meaning
[[Type]]	One of normal, break, continue, return, or throw	The type of completion that occurred.
[[Value]]	any ECMAScript language value or empty	The value that was produced.
[[Target]]	any ECMAScript string or empty	The target label for directed control transfers.

The term “abrupt completion” refers to any completion with a [[Type]] value other than normal.

6.2.3.1 Await

Algorithm steps that say

Let completion be Await(value).

mean the same thing as:

Let asyncContext be the running execution context.
Let promise be ? PromiseResolve(%Promise%, value).
Let stepsFulfilled be the algorithm steps defined in Await Fulfilled Functions.
Let lengthFulfilled be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in Await Fulfilled Functions.
Let onFulfilled be ! CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsFulfilled, lengthFulfilled, "", « [[AsyncContext]] »).
Set onFulfilled.[[AsyncContext]] to asyncContext.
Let stepsRejected be the algorithm steps defined in Await Rejected Functions.
Let lengthRejected be the number of non-optional parameters of the function definition in Await Rejected Functions.
Let onRejected be ! CreateBuiltinFunction(stepsRejected, lengthRejected, "", « [[AsyncContext]] »).
Set onRejected.[[AsyncContext]] to asyncContext.
Perform ! PerformPromiseThen(promise, onFulfilled, onRejected).
Remove asyncContext from the execution context stack and restore the execution context that is at the top of the execution context stack as the running execution context.
Set the code evaluation state of asyncContext such that when evaluation is resumed with a Completion completion, the following steps of the algorithm that invoked Await will be performed, with completion available.
Return.
NOTE: This returns to the evaluation of the operation that had most previously resumed evaluation of asyncContext.

where all aliases in the above steps, with the exception of completion, are ephemeral and visible only in the steps pertaining to Await.

Note

Await can be combined with the ? and ! prefixes, so that for example

Let result be ? Await(value).

means the same thing as:

Let result be Await(value).
ReturnIfAbrupt(result).

6.2.3.1.1 Await Fulfilled Functions

An Await fulfilled function is an anonymous built-in function that is used as part of the Await specification device to deliver the promise fulfillment value to the caller as a normal completion. Each Await fulfilled function has an [[AsyncContext]] internal slot.

When an Await fulfilled function is called with argument value, the following steps are taken:

Let F be the active function object.
Let asyncContext be F.[[AsyncContext]].
Let prevContext be the running execution context.
Suspend prevContext.
Push asyncContext onto the execution context stack; asyncContext is now the running execution context.
Resume the suspended evaluation of asyncContext using NormalCompletion(value) as the result of the operation that suspended it.
Assert: When we reach this step, asyncContext has already been removed from the execution context stack and prevContext is the currently running execution context.
Return undefined.

The "length" property of an Await fulfilled function is 1_𝔽.

6.2.3.1.2 Await Rejected Functions

An Await rejected function is an anonymous built-in function that is used as part of the Await specification device to deliver the promise rejection reason to the caller as an abrupt throw completion. Each Await rejected function has an [[AsyncContext]] internal slot.

When an Await rejected function is called with argument reason, the following steps are taken:

Let F be the active function object.
Let asyncContext be F.[[AsyncContext]].
Let prevContext be the running execution context.
Suspend prevContext.
Push asyncContext onto the execution context stack; asyncContext is now the running execution context.
Resume the suspended evaluation of asyncContext using ThrowCompletion(reason) as the result of the operation that suspended it.
Assert: When we reach this step, asyncContext has already been removed from the execution context stack and prevContext is the currently running execution context.
Return undefined.

The "length" property of an Await rejected function is 1_𝔽.

6.2.3.2 NormalCompletion

The abstract operation NormalCompletion with a single argument, such as:

Return NormalCompletion(argument).

Is a shorthand that is defined as follows:

Return Completion { [[Type]]: normal, [[Value]]: argument, [[Target]]: empty }.

6.2.3.3 ThrowCompletion

The abstract operation ThrowCompletion with a single argument, such as:

Return ThrowCompletion(argument).

Is a shorthand that is defined as follows:

Return Completion { [[Type]]: throw, [[Value]]: argument, [[Target]]: empty }.

6.2.3.4 UpdateEmpty ( `completionRecord`, `value` )

The abstract operation UpdateEmpty takes arguments completionRecord and value. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: If completionRecord.[[Type]] is either return or throw, then completionRecord.[[Value]] is not empty.
If completionRecord.[[Value]] is not empty, return Completion(completionRecord).
Return Completion { [[Type]]: completionRecord.[[Type]], [[Value]]: value, [[Target]]: completionRecord.[[Target]] }.

6.2.4 The Reference Record Specification Type

The Reference Record type is used to explain the behaviour of such operators as delete, typeof, the assignment operators, the super keyword and other language features. For example, the left-hand operand of an assignment is expected to produce a Reference Record.

A Reference Record is a resolved name or property binding; its fields are defined by Table 10.

Table 10: Reference Record Fields

Field Name	Value	Meaning
[[Base]]	One of: any ECMAScript language value except undefined or null, an Environment Record, or unresolvable.	The value or Environment Record which holds the binding. A [[Base]] of unresolvable indicates that the binding could not be resolved.
[[ReferencedName]]	String, Symbol, or Private Name	The name of the binding. Always a String if [[Base]] value is an Environment Record.
[[Strict]]	Boolean	true if the Reference Record originated in strict mode code, false otherwise.
[[ThisValue]]	any ECMAScript language value or empty	If not empty, the Reference Record represents a property binding that was expressed using the `super` keyword; it is called a Super Reference Record and its [[Base]] value will never be an Environment Record. In that case, the [[ThisValue]] field holds the this value at the time the Reference Record was created.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Reference Records:

6.2.4.1 IsPropertyReference ( `V` )

The abstract operation IsPropertyReference takes argument V. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: V is a Reference Record.
If V.[[Base]] is unresolvable, return false.
If Type(V.[[Base]]) is Boolean, String, Symbol, BigInt, Number, or Object, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.2 IsUnresolvableReference ( `V` )

The abstract operation IsUnresolvableReference takes argument V. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: V is a Reference Record.
If V.[[Base]] is unresolvable, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.3 IsSuperReference ( `V` )

The abstract operation IsSuperReference takes argument V. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: V is a Reference Record.
If V.[[ThisValue]] is not empty, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.4 IsPrivateReference ( `V` )

The abstract operation IsPrivateReference takes argument V. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: V is a Reference Record.
If V.[[ReferencedName]] is a Private Name, return true; otherwise return false.

6.2.4.5 GetValue ( `V` )

The abstract operation GetValue takes argument V. It performs the following steps when called:

ReturnIfAbrupt(V).
If V is not a Reference Record, return V.
If IsUnresolvableReference(V) is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
If IsPropertyReference(V) is true, then
1. Let baseObj be ! ToObject(V.[[Base]]).
2. If IsPrivateReference(V) is true, then
  1. Return ? PrivateGet(V.[[ReferencedName]], baseObj).
3. Return ? baseObj.[[Get]](V.[[ReferencedName]], GetThisValue(V)).
Else,
1. Let base be V.[[Base]].
2. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
3. Return ? base.GetBindingValue(V.[[ReferencedName]], V.[[Strict]]) (see 9.1).

Note

The object that may be created in step 4.a is not accessible outside of the above abstract operation and the ordinary object [[Get]] internal method. An implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of the object.

6.2.4.6 PutValue ( `V`, `W` )

The abstract operation PutValue takes arguments V and W. It performs the following steps when called:

ReturnIfAbrupt(V).
ReturnIfAbrupt(W).
If V is not a Reference Record, throw a ReferenceError exception.
If IsUnresolvableReference(V) is true, then
1. If V.[[Strict]] is true, throw a ReferenceError exception.
2. Let globalObj be GetGlobalObject().
3. Return ? Set(globalObj, V.[[ReferencedName]], W, false).
If IsPropertyReference(V) is true, then
1. Let baseObj be ! ToObject(V.[[Base]]).
2. If IsPrivateReference(V) is true, then
  1. Return ? PrivateSet(V.[[ReferencedName]], baseObj, W).
3. Let succeeded be ? baseObj.[[Set]](V.[[ReferencedName]], W, GetThisValue(V)).
4. If succeeded is false and V.[[Strict]] is true, throw a TypeError exception.
5. Return.
Else,
1. Let base be V.[[Base]].
2. Assert: base is an Environment Record.
3. Return ? base.SetMutableBinding(V.[[ReferencedName]], W, V.[[Strict]]) (see 9.1).

Note

The object that may be created in step 5.a is not accessible outside of the above abstract operation and the ordinary object [[Set]] internal method. An implementation might choose to avoid the actual creation of that object.

6.2.4.7 GetThisValue ( `V` )

The abstract operation GetThisValue takes argument V. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: IsPropertyReference(V) is true.
If IsSuperReference(V) is true, return V.[[ThisValue]]; otherwise return V.[[Base]].

6.2.4.8 InitializeReferencedBinding ( `V`, `W` )

The abstract operation InitializeReferencedBinding takes arguments V and W. It performs the following steps when called:

ReturnIfAbrupt(V).
ReturnIfAbrupt(W).
Assert: V is a Reference Record.
Assert: IsUnresolvableReference(V) is false.
Let base be V.[[Base]].
Assert: base is an Environment Record.
Return base.InitializeBinding(V.[[ReferencedName]], W).

6.2.4.9 MakePrivateReference ( `baseValue`, `privateIdentifier` )

The abstract operation MakePrivateReference takes arguments baseValue (an ECMAScript language value) and privateIdentifier (a String). It performs the following steps when called:

Let privEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
Assert: privEnv is not null.
Let privateName be ! ResolvePrivateIdentifier(privEnv, privateIdentifier).
Return the Reference Record { [[Base]]: baseValue, [[ReferencedName]]: privateName, [[Strict]]: true, [[ThisValue]]: empty }.

6.2.5 The Property Descriptor Specification Type

The Property Descriptor type is used to explain the manipulation and reification of Object property attributes. Values of the Property Descriptor type are Records. Each field's name is an attribute name and its value is a corresponding attribute value as specified in 6.1.7.1. In addition, any field may be present or absent. The schema name used within this specification to tag literal descriptions of Property Descriptor records is “PropertyDescriptor”.

Property Descriptor values may be further classified as data Property Descriptors and accessor Property Descriptors based upon the existence or use of certain fields. A data Property Descriptor is one that includes any fields named either [[Value]] or [[Writable]]. An accessor Property Descriptor is one that includes any fields named either [[Get]] or [[Set]]. Any Property Descriptor may have fields named [[Enumerable]] and [[Configurable]]. A Property Descriptor value may not be both a data Property Descriptor and an accessor Property Descriptor; however, it may be neither. A generic Property Descriptor is a Property Descriptor value that is neither a data Property Descriptor nor an accessor Property Descriptor. A fully populated Property Descriptor is one that is either an accessor Property Descriptor or a data Property Descriptor and that has all of the fields that correspond to the property attributes defined in either Table 3 or Table 4.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Property Descriptor values:

6.2.5.1 IsAccessorDescriptor ( `Desc` )

The abstract operation IsAccessorDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor or undefined). It performs the following steps when called:

If Desc is undefined, return false.
If both Desc.[[Get]] and Desc.[[Set]] are absent, return false.
Return true.

6.2.5.2 IsDataDescriptor ( `Desc` )

The abstract operation IsDataDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor or undefined). It performs the following steps when called:

If Desc is undefined, return false.
If both Desc.[[Value]] and Desc.[[Writable]] are absent, return false.
Return true.

6.2.5.3 IsGenericDescriptor ( `Desc` )

The abstract operation IsGenericDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor or undefined). It performs the following steps when called:

If Desc is undefined, return false.
If IsAccessorDescriptor(Desc) and IsDataDescriptor(Desc) are both false, return true.
Return false.

6.2.5.4 FromPropertyDescriptor ( `Desc` )

The abstract operation FromPropertyDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor or undefined). It performs the following steps when called:

If Desc is undefined, return undefined.
Let obj be ! OrdinaryObjectCreate(%Object.prototype%).
Assert: obj is an extensible ordinary object with no own properties.
If Desc has a [[Value]] field, then
1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "value", Desc.[[Value]]).
If Desc has a [[Writable]] field, then
1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "writable", Desc.[[Writable]]).
If Desc has a [[Get]] field, then
1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "get", Desc.[[Get]]).
If Desc has a [[Set]] field, then
1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "set", Desc.[[Set]]).
If Desc has an [[Enumerable]] field, then
1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "enumerable", Desc.[[Enumerable]]).
If Desc has a [[Configurable]] field, then
1. Perform ! CreateDataPropertyOrThrow(obj, "configurable", Desc.[[Configurable]]).
Return obj.

6.2.5.5 ToPropertyDescriptor ( `Obj` )

The abstract operation ToPropertyDescriptor takes argument Obj. It performs the following steps when called:

If Type(Obj) is not Object, throw a TypeError exception.
Let desc be a new Property Descriptor that initially has no fields.
Let hasEnumerable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "enumerable").
If hasEnumerable is true, then
1. Let enumerable be ! ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "enumerable")).
2. Set desc.[[Enumerable]] to enumerable.
Let hasConfigurable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "configurable").
If hasConfigurable is true, then
1. Let configurable be ! ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "configurable")).
2. Set desc.[[Configurable]] to configurable.
Let hasValue be ? HasProperty(Obj, "value").
If hasValue is true, then
1. Let value be ? Get(Obj, "value").
2. Set desc.[[Value]] to value.
Let hasWritable be ? HasProperty(Obj, "writable").
If hasWritable is true, then
1. Let writable be ! ToBoolean(? Get(Obj, "writable")).
2. Set desc.[[Writable]] to writable.
Let hasGet be ? HasProperty(Obj, "get").
If hasGet is true, then
1. Let getter be ? Get(Obj, "get").
2. If IsCallable(getter) is false and getter is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Set desc.[[Get]] to getter.
Let hasSet be ? HasProperty(Obj, "set").
If hasSet is true, then
1. Let setter be ? Get(Obj, "set").
2. If IsCallable(setter) is false and setter is not undefined, throw a TypeError exception.
3. Set desc.[[Set]] to setter.
If desc.[[Get]] is present or desc.[[Set]] is present, then
1. If desc.[[Value]] is present or desc.[[Writable]] is present, throw a TypeError exception.
Return desc.

6.2.5.6 CompletePropertyDescriptor ( `Desc` )

The abstract operation CompletePropertyDescriptor takes argument Desc (a Property Descriptor). It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: Desc is a Property Descriptor.
Let like be the Record { [[Value]]: undefined, [[Writable]]: false, [[Get]]: undefined, [[Set]]: undefined, [[Enumerable]]: false, [[Configurable]]: false }.
If IsGenericDescriptor(Desc) is true or IsDataDescriptor(Desc) is true, then
1. If Desc does not have a [[Value]] field, set Desc.[[Value]] to like.[[Value]].
2. If Desc does not have a [[Writable]] field, set Desc.[[Writable]] to like.[[Writable]].
Else,
1. If Desc does not have a [[Get]] field, set Desc.[[Get]] to like.[[Get]].
2. If Desc does not have a [[Set]] field, set Desc.[[Set]] to like.[[Set]].
If Desc does not have an [[Enumerable]] field, set Desc.[[Enumerable]] to like.[[Enumerable]].
If Desc does not have a [[Configurable]] field, set Desc.[[Configurable]] to like.[[Configurable]].
Return Desc.

6.2.6 The Environment Record Specification Type

The Environment Record type is used to explain the behaviour of name resolution in nested functions and blocks. This type and the operations upon it are defined in 9.1.

6.2.7 The Abstract Closure Specification Type

The Abstract Closure specification type is used to refer to algorithm steps together with a collection of values. Abstract Closures are meta-values and are invoked using function application style such as closure(arg1, arg2). Like abstract operations, invocations perform the algorithm steps described by the Abstract Closure.

In algorithm steps that create an Abstract Closure, values are captured with the verb "capture" followed by a list of aliases. When an Abstract Closure is created, it captures the value that is associated with each alias at that time. In steps that specify the algorithm to be performed when an Abstract Closure is called, each captured value is referred to by the alias that was used to capture the value.

If an Abstract Closure returns a Completion Record, that Completion Record's [[Type]] must be either normal or throw.

Abstract Closures are created inline as part of other algorithms, shown in the following example.

Let addend be 41.
Let closure be a new Abstract Closure with parameters (x) that captures addend and performs the following steps when called:
1. Return x + addend.
Let val be closure(1).
Assert: val is 42.

6.2.8 Data Blocks

The Data Block specification type is used to describe a distinct and mutable sequence of byte-sized (8 bit) numeric values. A byte value is an integer value in the range 0 through 255, inclusive. A Data Block value is created with a fixed number of bytes that each have the initial value 0.

For notational convenience within this specification, an array-like syntax can be used to access the individual bytes of a Data Block value. This notation presents a Data Block value as a 0-origined integer-indexed sequence of bytes. For example, if db is a 5 byte Data Block value then db[2] can be used to access its 3^rd byte.

A data block that resides in memory that can be referenced from multiple agents concurrently is designated a Shared Data Block. A Shared Data Block has an identity (for the purposes of equality testing Shared Data Block values) that is address-free: it is tied not to the virtual addresses the block is mapped to in any process, but to the set of locations in memory that the block represents. Two data blocks are equal only if the sets of the locations they contain are equal; otherwise, they are not equal and the intersection of the sets of locations they contain is empty. Finally, Shared Data Blocks can be distinguished from Data Blocks.

The semantics of Shared Data Blocks is defined using Shared Data Block events by the memory model. Abstract operations below introduce Shared Data Block events and act as the interface between evaluation semantics and the event semantics of the memory model. The events form a candidate execution, on which the memory model acts as a filter. Please consult the memory model for full semantics.

Shared Data Block events are modeled by Records, defined in the memory model.

The following abstract operations are used in this specification to operate upon Data Block values:

6.2.8.1 CreateByteDataBlock ( `size` )

The abstract operation CreateByteDataBlock takes argument size (an integer). It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: size ≥ 0.
Let db be a new Data Block value consisting of size bytes. If it is impossible to create such a Data Block, throw a RangeError exception.
Set all of the bytes of db to 0.
Return db.

6.2.8.2 CreateSharedByteDataBlock ( `size` )

The abstract operation CreateSharedByteDataBlock takes argument size (a non-negative integer). It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: size ≥ 0.
Let db be a new Shared Data Block value consisting of size bytes. If it is impossible to create such a Shared Data Block, throw a RangeError exception.
Let execution be the [[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
Let eventList be the [[EventList]] field of the element in execution.[[EventsRecords]] whose [[AgentSignifier]] is AgentSignifier().
Let zero be « 0 ».
For each index i of db, do
1. Append WriteSharedMemory { [[Order]]: Init, [[NoTear]]: true, [[Block]]: db, [[ByteIndex]]: i, [[ElementSize]]: 1, [[Payload]]: zero } to eventList.
Return db.

6.2.8.3 CopyDataBlockBytes ( `toBlock`, `toIndex`, `fromBlock`, `fromIndex`, `count` )

The abstract operation CopyDataBlockBytes takes arguments toBlock, toIndex (a non-negative integer), fromBlock, fromIndex (a non-negative integer), and count (a non-negative integer). It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: fromBlock and toBlock are distinct Data Block or Shared Data Block values.
Let fromSize be the number of bytes in fromBlock.
Assert: fromIndex + count ≤ fromSize.
Let toSize be the number of bytes in toBlock.
Assert: toIndex + count ≤ toSize.
Repeat, while count > 0,
1. If fromBlock is a Shared Data Block, then
  1. Let execution be the [[CandidateExecution]] field of the surrounding agent's Agent Record.
  2. Let eventList be the [[EventList]] field of the element in execution.[[EventsRecords]] whose [[AgentSignifier]] is AgentSignifier().
  3. Let bytes be a List whose sole element is a nondeterministically chosen byte value.
  4. NOTE: In implementations, bytes is the result of a non-atomic read instruction on the underlying hardware. The nondeterminism is a semantic prescription of the memory model to describe observable behaviour of hardware with weak consistency.
  5. Let readEvent be ReadSharedMemory { [[Order]]: Unordered, [[NoTear]]: true, [[Block]]: fromBlock, [[ByteIndex]]: fromIndex, [[ElementSize]]: 1 }.
  6. Append readEvent to eventList.
  7. Append Chosen Value Record { [[Event]]: readEvent, [[ChosenValue]]: bytes } to execution.[[ChosenValues]].
  8. If toBlock is a Shared Data Block, then
    1. Append WriteSharedMemory { [[Order]]: Unordered, [[NoTear]]: true, [[Block]]: toBlock, [[ByteIndex]]: toIndex, [[ElementSize]]: 1, [[Payload]]: bytes } to eventList.
  9. Else,
    1. Set toBlock[toIndex] to bytes[0].
2. Else,
  1. Assert: toBlock is not a Shared Data Block.
  2. Set toBlock[toIndex] to fromBlock[fromIndex].
3. Set toIndex to toIndex + 1.
4. Set fromIndex to fromIndex + 1.
5. Set count to count - 1.
Return NormalCompletion(empty).

6.2.9 The PrivateElement Specification Type

The PrivateElement type is a Record used in the specification of private class fields, methods, and accessors. Although Property Descriptors are not used for private elements, private fields behave similarly to non-configurable, non-enumerable, writable data properties, private methods behave similarly to non-configurable, non-enumerable, non-writable data properties, and private accessors behave similarly to non-configurable, non-enumerable accessor properties.

Values of the PrivateElement type are Record values whose fields are defined by Table 11. Such values are referred to as PrivateElements.

Table 11: PrivateElement Fields

Field Name	Values of the [[Kind]] field for which it is present	Value	Meaning
[[Key]]	All	a Private Name	The name of the field, method, or accessor.
[[Kind]]	All	field, method, or accessor	The kind of the element.
[[Value]]	field and method	any ECMAScript language value	The value of the field.
[[Get]]	accessor	Function or Undefined	The getter for a private accessor.
[[Set]]	accessor	Function or Undefined	The setter for a private accessor.

6.2.10 The ClassFieldDefinition Record Specification Type

The ClassFieldDefinition type is a Record used in the specification of class fields.

Values of the ClassFieldDefinition type are Record values whose fields are defined by Table 12. Such values are referred to as ClassFieldDefinition Records.

Table 12: ClassFieldDefinition Record Fields

Field Name	Value	Meaning
[[Name]]	a Private Name, a String value, or a Symbol value.	The name of the field.
[[Initializer]]	an ECMAScript function object, or empty	The initializer of the field, if any.

6.2.11 Private Names

The Private Name specification type is used to describe a globally unique value (one which differs from any other Private Name, even if they are otherwise indistinguishable) which represents the key of a private class element (field, method, or accessor). Each Private Name has an associated immutable [[Description]] which is a String value. A Private Name may be installed on any ECMAScript object with PrivateFieldAdd or PrivateMethodOrAccessorAdd, and then read or written using PrivateGet and PrivateSet.

7 Abstract Operations

These operations are not a part of the ECMAScript language; they are defined here solely to aid the specification of the semantics of the ECMAScript language. Other, more specialized abstract operations are defined throughout this specification.

7.1 Type Conversion

The ECMAScript language implicitly performs automatic type conversion as needed. To clarify the semantics of certain constructs it is useful to define a set of conversion abstract operations. The conversion abstract operations are polymorphic; they can accept a value of any ECMAScript language type. But no other specification types are used with these operations.

The BigInt type has no implicit conversions in the ECMAScript language; programmers must call BigInt explicitly to convert values from other types.

7.1.1 ToPrimitive ( `input` [ , `preferredType` ] )

The abstract operation ToPrimitive takes argument input and optional argument preferredType. It converts its input argument to a non-Object type. If an object is capable of converting to more than one primitive type, it may use the optional hint preferredType to favour that type. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: input is an ECMAScript language value.
If Type(input) is Object, then
1. Let exoticToPrim be ? GetMethod(input, @@toPrimitive).
2. If exoticToPrim is not undefined, then
  1. If preferredType is not present, let hint be "default".
  2. Else if preferredType is string, let hint be "string".
  3. Else,
    1. Assert: preferredType is number.
    2. Let hint be "number".
  4. Let result be ? Call(exoticToPrim, input, « hint »).
  5. If Type(result) is not Object, return result.
  6. Throw a TypeError exception.
3. If preferredType is not present, let preferredType be number.
4. Return ? OrdinaryToPrimitive(input, preferredType).
Return input.

Note

When ToPrimitive is called with no hint, then it generally behaves as if the hint were number. However, objects may over-ride this behaviour by defining a @@toPrimitive method. Of the objects defined in this specification only Date objects (see 21.4.4.45) and Symbol objects (see 20.4.3.5) over-ride the default ToPrimitive behaviour. Date objects treat no hint as if the hint were string.

7.1.1.1 OrdinaryToPrimitive ( `O`, `hint` )

The abstract operation OrdinaryToPrimitive takes arguments O and hint. It performs the following steps when called:

Assert: Type(O) is Object.
Assert: hint is either string or number.
If hint is string, then
1. Let methodNames be « "toString", "valueOf" ».
Else,
1. Let methodNames be « "valueOf", "toString" ».
For each element name of methodNames, do
1. Let method be ? Get(O, name).
2. If IsCallable(method) is true, then
  1. Let result be ? Call(method, O).
  2. If Type(result) is not Object, return result.
Throw a TypeError exception.

7.1.2 ToBoolean ( `argument` )

The abstract operation ToBoolean takes argument argument. It converts argument to a value of type Boolean according to Table 13:

Table 13: ToBoolean Conversions

Argument Type	Result
Undefined	Return false.
Null	Return false.
Boolean	Return `argument`.
Number	If `argument` is +0_𝔽, -0_𝔽, or NaN, return false; otherwise return true.
String	If `argument` is the empty String (its length is 0), return false; otherwise return true.
Symbol	Return true.
BigInt	If `argument` is 0_ℤ, return false; otherwise return true.
Object	Return true. Note An alternate algorithm related to the [[IsHTMLDDA]] internal slot is mandated in section B.3.7.1.

7.1.3 ToNumeric ( `value` )

The abstract operation ToNumeric takes argument value. It returns value converted to a Number or a BigInt. It performs the following steps when called:

Let primValue be ? ToPrimitive(value, number).
If Type(primValue) is BigInt, return primValue.
Return ? ToNumber(primValue).

7.1.4 ToNumber ( `argument` )

The abstract operation ToNumber takes argument argument. It converts argument to a value of type Number according to Table 14:

Table 14: ToNumber Conversions

Argument Type	Result
Undefined	Return NaN.
Null	Return +0_𝔽.
Boolean	If `argument` is true, return 1_𝔽. If `argument` is false, return +0_𝔽.
Number	Return `argument` (no conversion).
String	See grammar and conversion algorithm below.
Symbol	Throw a TypeError exception.
BigInt	Throw a TypeError exception.
Object	Apply the following steps: Let `primValue` be ? ToPrimitive(`argument`, number). Return ? ToNumber(`primValue`).

7.1.4.1 ToNumber Applied to the String Type

ToNumber applied to Strings applies the following grammar to the input String interpreted as a sequence of UTF-16 encoded code points (6.1.4). If the grammar cannot interpret the String as an expansion of StringNumericLiteral, then the result of ToNumber is NaN.

Note 1

The terminal symbols of this grammar are all composed of characters in the Unicode Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP). Therefore, the result of ToNumber will be NaN if the string contains any leading surrogate or trailing surrogate code units, whether paired or unpaired.

Syntax

:::

opt

opt

opt

:::

opt

:::

:::

NonDecimalIntegerLiteral

[~Sep]

StrDecimalLiteral

:::

:::

Infinity

[~Sep]

[~Sep]

opt

ExponentPart

[~Sep]

opt

[~Sep]

ExponentPart

[~Sep]

opt