Introduction
1 Scope
◢2 Conformance
1. 2.1 Example Normative Optional Clause Heading
2. 2.2 Example Legacy Clause Heading
3. 2.3 Example Legacy Normative Optional Clause Heading
3 Normative References
◢4 Overview
1. 4.1 Web Scripting
2. 4.2 Hosts and Implementations
3. ◢4.3 ECMAScript Overview
  1. 4.3.1 Objects
  2. 4.3.2 The Strict Variant of ECMAScript
4. ◢4.4 Terms and Definitions
5. 4.5 Organization of This Specification
◢5 Notational Conventions
1. ◢5.1 Syntactic and Lexical Grammars
2. ◢5.2 Algorithm Conventions
◢6 ECMAScript Data Types and Values
1. ◢6.1 ECMAScript Language Types
2. ◢6.2 ECMAScript Specification Types
◢7 Abstract Operations
1. ◢7.1 Type Conversion
2. ◢7.2 Testing and Comparison Operations
3. ◢7.3 Operations on Objects
4. ◢7.4 Operations on Iterator Objects
◢8 Syntax-Directed Operations
1. 8.1 RS: Evaluation
2. ◢8.2 Scope Analysis
3. ◢8.3 Labels
4. ◢8.4 Function Name Inference
5. ◢8.5 Contains
  1. 8.5.1 SS: Contains
  2. 8.5.2 SS: ComputedPropertyContains
6. ◢8.6 Miscellaneous
◢9 Executable Code and Execution Contexts
1. ◢9.1 Environment Records
  1. ◢9.1.1 The Environment Record Type Hierarchy
  2. ◢9.1.2 Environment Record Operations
2. ◢9.2 PrivateEnvironment Records
  1. ◢9.2.1 PrivateEnvironment Record Operations
    1. 9.2.1.1 NewPrivateEnvironment ( outerPrivEnv )
    2. 9.2.1.2 ResolvePrivateIdentifier ( privEnv, identifier )
3. ◢9.3 Realms
4. ◢9.4 Execution Contexts
5. ◢9.5 Jobs and Host Operations to Enqueue Jobs
6. 9.6 InitializeHostDefinedRealm ( )
7. ◢9.7 Agents
  1. 9.7.1 AgentSignifier ( )
  2. 9.7.2 AgentCanSuspend ( )
8. 9.8 Agent Clusters
9. 9.9 Forward Progress
10. ◢9.10 Processing Model of WeakRef and FinalizationRegistry Targets
11. 9.11 ClearKeptObjects ( )
12. 9.12 AddToKeptObjects ( value )
13. 9.13 CleanupFinalizationRegistry ( finalizationRegistry )
14. 9.14 CanBeHeldWeakly ( v )
◢10 Ordinary and Exotic Objects Behaviours
1. ◢10.1 Ordinary Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots
2. ◢10.2 ECMAScript Function Objects
3. ◢10.3 Built-in Function Objects
4. ◢10.4 Built-in Exotic Object Internal Methods and Slots
5. ◢10.5 Proxy Object Internal Methods and Internal Slots
◢11 ECMAScript Language: Source Text
1. ◢11.1 Source Text
2. ◢11.2 Types of Source Code
◢12 ECMAScript Language: Lexical Grammar
1. 12.1 Unicode Format-Control Characters
2. 12.2 White Space
3. 12.3 Line Terminators
4. 12.4 Comments
5. 12.5 Hashbang Comments
6. 12.6 Tokens
7. ◢12.7 Names and Keywords
  1. ◢12.7.1 Identifier Names
  2. 12.7.2 Keywords and Reserved Words
8. 12.8 Punctuators
9. ◢12.9 Literals
10. ◢12.10 Automatic Semicolon Insertion
◢13 ECMAScript Language: Expressions
1. ◢13.1 Identifiers
2. ◢13.2 Primary Expression
3. ◢13.3 Left-Hand-Side Expressions
4. ◢13.4 Update Expressions
5. ◢13.5 Unary Operators
6. ◢13.6 Exponentiation Operator
  1. 13.6.1 RS: Evaluation
7. ◢13.7 Multiplicative Operators
  1. 13.7.1 RS: Evaluation
8. ◢13.8 Additive Operators
  1. ◢13.8.1 The Addition Operator ( + )
    1. 13.8.1.1 RS: Evaluation
  2. ◢13.8.2 The Subtraction Operator ( - )
    1. 13.8.2.1 RS: Evaluation
9. ◢13.9 Bitwise Shift Operators
10. ◢13.10 Relational Operators
  1. 13.10.1 RS: Evaluation
  2. 13.10.2 InstanceofOperator ( V, target )
11. ◢13.11 Equality Operators
  1. 13.11.1 RS: Evaluation
12. ◢13.12 Binary Bitwise Operators
  1. 13.12.1 RS: Evaluation
13. ◢13.13 Binary Logical Operators
  1. 13.13.1 RS: Evaluation
14. ◢13.14 Conditional Operator ( ? : )
  1. 13.14.1 RS: Evaluation
15. ◢13.15 Assignment Operators
16. ◢13.16 Comma Operator ( , )
  1. 13.16.1 RS: Evaluation
◢14 ECMAScript Language: Statements and Declarations
1. ◢14.1 Statement Semantics
  1. 14.1.1 RS: Evaluation
2. ◢14.2 Block
3. ◢14.3 Declarations and the Variable Statement
4. ◢14.4 Empty Statement
  1. 14.4.1 RS: Evaluation
5. ◢14.5 Expression Statement
  1. 14.5.1 RS: Evaluation
6. ◢14.6 The if Statement
  1. 14.6.1 SS: Early Errors
  2. 14.6.2 RS: Evaluation
7. ◢14.7 Iteration Statements
8. ◢14.8 The continue Statement
  1. 14.8.1 SS: Early Errors
  2. 14.8.2 RS: Evaluation
9. ◢14.9 The break Statement
  1. 14.9.1 SS: Early Errors
  2. 14.9.2 RS: Evaluation
10. ◢14.10 The return Statement
  1. 14.10.1 RS: Evaluation
11. ◢14.11 The with Statement
  1. 14.11.1 SS: Early Errors
  2. 14.11.2 RS: Evaluation
12. ◢14.12 The switch Statement
13. ◢14.13 Labelled Statements
14. ◢14.14 The throw Statement
  1. 14.14.1 RS: Evaluation
15. ◢14.15 The try Statement
16. ◢14.16 The debugger Statement
  1. 14.16.1 RS: Evaluation
◢15 ECMAScript Language: Functions and Classes
1. ◢15.1 Parameter Lists
2. ◢15.2 Function Definitions
3. ◢15.3 Arrow Function Definitions
4. ◢15.4 Method Definitions
5. ◢15.5 Generator Function Definitions
6. ◢15.6 Async Generator Function Definitions
7. ◢15.7 Class Definitions
8. ◢15.8 Async Function Definitions
9. ◢15.9 Async Arrow Function Definitions
10. ◢15.10 Tail Position Calls
◢16 ECMAScript Language: Scripts and Modules
1. ◢16.1 Scripts
2. ◢16.2 Modules
◢17 Error Handling and Language Extensions
1. 17.1 Forbidden Extensions
18 ECMAScript Standard Built-in Objects
◢19 The Global Object
1. ◢19.1 Value Properties of the Global Object
2. ◢19.2 Function Properties of the Global Object
3. ◢19.3 Constructor Properties of the Global Object
4. ◢19.4 Other Properties of the Global Object
◢20 Fundamental Objects
1. ◢20.1 Object Objects
2. ◢20.2 Function Objects
3. ◢20.3 Boolean Objects
4. ◢20.4 Symbol Objects
5. ◢20.5 Error Objects
◢21 Numbers and Dates
1. ◢21.1 Number Objects
2. ◢21.2 BigInt Objects
3. ◢21.3 The Math Object
  1. ◢21.3.1 Value Properties of the Math Object
  2. ◢21.3.2 Function Properties of the Math Object
4. ◢21.4 Date Objects
◢22 Text Processing
1. ◢22.1 String Objects
2. ◢22.2 RegExp (Regular Expression) Objects
◢23 Indexed Collections
1. ◢23.1 Array Objects
2. ◢23.2 TypedArray Objects
◢24 Keyed Collections
1. ◢24.1 Map Objects
2. ◢24.2 Set Objects
3. ◢24.3 WeakMap Objects
4. ◢24.4 WeakSet Objects
◢25 Structured Data
1. ◢25.1 ArrayBuffer Objects
2. ◢25.2 SharedArrayBuffer Objects
3. ◢25.3 DataView Objects
4. ◢25.4 The Atomics Object
5. ◢25.5 The JSON Object
◢26 Managing Memory
1. ◢26.1 WeakRef Objects
2. ◢26.2 FinalizationRegistry Objects
◢27 Control Abstraction Objects
1. ◢27.1 Iteration
2. ◢27.2 Promise Objects
3. ◢27.3 GeneratorFunction Objects
4. ◢27.4 AsyncGeneratorFunction Objects
5. ◢27.5 Generator Objects
6. ◢27.6 AsyncGenerator Objects
7. ◢27.7 AsyncFunction Objects
◢28 Reflection
1. ◢28.1 The Reflect Object
2. ◢28.2 Proxy Objects
  1. ◢28.2.1 The Proxy Constructor
    1. 28.2.1.1 Proxy ( target, handler )
  2. ◢28.2.2 Properties of the Proxy Constructor
    1. 28.2.2.1 Proxy.revocable ( target, handler )
3. ◢28.3 Module Namespace Objects
  1. 28.3.1 @@toStringTag
◢29 Memory Model
1. 29.1 Memory Model Fundamentals
2. 29.2 Agent Events Records
3. 29.3 Chosen Value Records
4. 29.4 Candidate Executions
5. ◢29.5 Abstract Operations for the Memory Model
6. ◢29.6 Relations of Candidate Executions
7. ◢29.7 Properties of Valid Executions
8. 29.8 Races
9. 29.9 Data Races
10. 29.10 Data Race Freedom
11. 29.11 Shared Memory Guidelines
◢A Grammar Summary
1. A.1 Lexical Grammar
2. A.2 Expressions
3. A.3 Statements
4. A.4 Functions and Classes
5. A.5 Scripts and Modules
6. A.6 Number Conversions
7. A.7 Time Zone Offset String Format
8. A.8 Regular Expressions
◢B Additional ECMAScript Features for Web Browsers
1. ◢B.1 Additional Syntax
  1. B.1.1 HTML-like Comments
  2. ◢B.1.2 Regular Expressions Patterns
2. ◢B.2 Additional Built-in Properties
3. ◢B.3 Other Additional Features
C The Strict Mode of ECMAScript
◢D Host Layering Points
1. D.1 Host Hooks
2. D.2 Host-defined Fields
3. D.3 Host-defined Objects
4. D.4 Running Jobs
5. D.5 Internal Methods of Exotic Objects
6. D.6 Built-in Objects and Methods
E Corrections and Clarifications in ECMAScript 2015 with Possible Compatibility Impact
F Additions and Changes That Introduce Incompatibilities with Prior Editions
G Colophon
H Bibliography
I Copyright & Software License

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1 Scope

This Standard defines the ECMAScript 2023 general-purpose programming language.